I - Act Living Protection of the 14th Amendment ingenye yezinsika ezinamandla neziphikiswana kakhulu zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo waseMelika. Isekelwe esithembisweni sokulingana ngemva kweMpi Yombango, lomusho owodwa uye waguqula izinqumo eziphawulekayo zohlanga, ubulili, ubulili, nokukhubazeka. Ukuqonda umlando wawo, incazelo yawo yokwahlulela, kanye nokubaluleka kwawo okuqhubekayo kubalulekile kunoma ubani ofuna ukuthola izisekelo ezingokomthetho zamalungelo omphakathi eUnited States.

Umbhalo Nenjongo Yokuqala Yokuzivikela KukaClaus Olinganayo

I-ratived yabekwa ngo-1868, iSichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo sasiyimpendulo eqondile yokungabi nabulungisa kwezimiso okwaqhubeka ngemva kokuqedwa kobugqila. Ingxenye 1 ye-memondi iyamemezela: "Awukho uHulumeni... ozophika noma ubani onegunya lakhe ukuvikelwa okufanayo kwemithetho." Umthetho waklanyelwa ukuqinisekisa ukuthi amaMelika ase-Afrika asanda kukhululwa ayezothola isivikelo esingokomthetho esifanayo njengezakhamuzi ezimhlophe. Noma kunjalo umbhalo wawo ubanzi ngamabomu, usebenzisa inkulumo ethi "noma isiphi umuntu" kunesithi "sakhamuzi," eye yavumela izinkantolo ukuba zisebenzise izigaba eziningi zezindawo ngesikhathi.

Abakhi beSichibiyelo se 14th baqonda ukuthi ukuqedwa nje kobugqila kwakungaqinisekisi ukulingana. Imithetho emnyama emiswe eNingizimu yezifundazwe ngemva kweMpi Yombango yabeka imingcele enzima kubantu abakhululekile, ilinganisela amalungelo abo ukuba abe nezinto, angene ezivumelwaneni, futhi ihambe ngokukhululekile. I-Compamement Protection Claus, kanye namaRomastio noma ama-Immunites Claus ne-Act Proce Claus, yayihloselwe ukunikeza uMkhandlu-mkhandlu igunya lokuphoqelela lezi zivumelwano ezintsha zikahulumeni. Ukuze ubheke ngokunzulu umlando wokwanelisa izivumelwano, bheka iSikhungo somthetho-mthetho wesizwe [[FLT]].

Incazelo Encane Yokuqala

Naphezu kolimi lwayo olunesifiso esiphezulu, iNkantolo Ephakeme yaqale yachaza i-Ecumelt Protection Clause ngendlela eqine kakhulu. ICases-Ndlu [1896], iNkantolo yabambelela ukuthi isivikelo se 1450th IsiHlulo seSiphendu sasisebenza kuphela ezakhamuzini zesizwe, hhayi ekubuseni izakhamuzi, ukukhipha ngokuphumelelayo imingcele yesizwe. [ku-Preg] Pyv. Ferguson[FLT] [FLT] [1866] [1866], iNkanto edabukisayo, iSigeqendulo sasekela isifunda i-vernvern ephakathi kwemfundiso yenkolo yezinhlanga elinganayo “ehlukene kodwa elinganayo. Isinqumo samemezela ukuthi ukuhlukanisa kwezinhlanga akushoshoshosho lutho olude njengaleli yezekhulu leminyaka.

I Evolution of Auncility Protection: Ukusuka ku- “Specing kodwa Ulingana” kuya ku-Scrinit Eqinile

Ukuqonda kwanamuhla kwe-Uncimence Protection Claus kwaqala ukubonakala phakathi nekhulu lama-2020, okwaqhutshwa yinhlangano yamalungelo abantu kanye nochungechunge lwezinqumo zeNkantolo ePhakeme. Okushinyelelwe kakhulu kwakuyi-Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo[ [1954], eyase ihlehlise [[[FLT]] P [[FLT]] [[FLT]]] futhi yathi “eyingenandawo elinganayo”. UMahlulele omkhulu u-Earl Harrenton wabhala ukuthi ukuhla kwesizwe “ukuzizwa kuphansi njengomphakathi okungase kuthinte izinhliziyo zabo nezingqondo ngendlela engalindelekile ukuqedwa. [FLT][FLD][FFF][5]

Ngemva Brown, iNkantolo yasungula isimiso esineziqeshana sokuhlola ukuze inqume ukuthi umthetho wephula nini iSivikelo sika Claus olinganayo. Lolu hlaka lwaziwa ngokuthi amazinga amathathu okuhlola:

  • Ukuhlola - Kusetshenziswa ukuhlelwa okusekelwe ngokohlanga, ekudalweni kwesizwe, noma ekuphambukweni, kanye nasemithethweni ethwesa umthwalo wamalungelo ayisisekelo (njengovota noma umshado). Ngaphansi kokucubungula okuqinile, uhulumeni kumelwe abonise ukuthi umthetho ufeza isithakazelo esiphoqeleleyo sombuso futhi uhlonyiselwe ukufinyelela lesosithakazelo. Imithetho eminingi ehlolwe ngokucunuliswa ngokunelisayo iyawa.
  • Ukuhlola okuphakathi[ - - Ihlolwe ukuhlelwa okusekelwe ebulilini noma esemthethweni. Uhulumeni kumelwe abonise ukuthi umthetho uhlobene kakhulu nesithakazelo esibalulekile sikahulumeni. Lelizinga lasungulwa ku- Craig v. Boren [7] [7] 76] ngenxa yobandlululo lobufana.
  • Isisekelo sesisekelo se-Rotifiction - Ibhekiswe kuzo zonke ezinye izigaba (umzk., ubudala, ukukhubazeka, umthetho wezomnotho). Umthetho ucatshangelwa njengosebenzayo, futhi umcuphi kumelwe abonise ukuthi awunabo ubuhlobo obunengqondo nesithakazelo sikahulumeni esingokomthetho. Ukwenza, ukubukeza okunengqondo kungokokusondeza kakhulu kuhulumeni.

Lesi sakhiwo esinezinhlu asibhalwanga ngokucacile kuMthetho-sisekelo; kuyisakhiwo sokwahlulela iNkantolo esenze sacwengisisa phakathi namashumi eminyaka. Ukuze ibone ngokucubungula kabanzi izindinganiso zokuhlola, Cornell Legil Information Institute inikeza ukukhomba okuhle kakhulu ekuvikeleni okufanayo [[

Ubandlululo Nobuhlakani Obuyi - interinterte Scrincing

Kuningi komlando waseMelika, i-Univince Protection Claus ayizange isetshenziswe ekukhetheni ubulili. E-Illinois [1873], iNkantolo yasekela umthetho kahulumeni ovimbela abesifazane ekusebenziseni umthetho, icabanga ukuthi “umthetho kahulumeni, kanye nemvelo ngokwayo, ngaso sonke isikhathi uye waqaphela umehluko omkhulu ezindinganisweni ezihlukene nakuleso sikhathi." Lokhu kucabanga kwaqhubeka kwaze kwaba ngo 1970. [[FLT:] V.[FLT][FL:][FL:]] [3] [1], iNkakhulu, iNkade yashaya umthetho we - I - I - Inkundla ehlelile, kodwa ewubonisayokuqala isikhathi sokuphatha iNkadebengosibonelo. [F]

Ukuthuthuka Ngokobulili Nokwanda Kwanamuhla

Mhlawumbe akukho ndawo eye yashintsha ngokushesha ngaphansi kwe-Living Protection Claus elinganayo kunamalungelo e-LGBTQ+ abantu ngabanye. Romaster v. Evans [1966], iNkantolo yabulala iColorado communmental immuniment eyavimbela noma imuphi umthetho wendawo ovikela ongongqingili nowe-ngqingili abantu ukuba bangabandlululwa, ibambe ukuthi ukucwasana okunengqondo kungenayo isithakazelo esingokomthetho sikahulumeni. Kwabe kusethi Lawnce v. Texas[FLT: 33], iNkathi i-Texas ye-Texas umthetho we-Texas u-sodomacy umthetho olandelwa yi-Claus, kodwa futhi isinqumo savikela ngokufanayo.

Umzuzu ophendulisiwe weza umbono wagcizelela ukuthi “ilungelo lokushada liyifa lendabuko yomuntu, futhi ngaphansi kweNkantolo neSivikelo sika-Claus weNguquko yesine ye-Inday ne-Moniment Claus. IJaji u-Anthony Kennedy u-Kennedy wagcizelela ukuthi “ilungelo lokushada liyifa lenzalo eliyisisekelo elisemthethweni ekhululekileni lomuntu, futhi ngaphansi kweNkathi Yesikhungo neSivikelo Esilinganayo sika-Claus seMidlaliti ye-Classinetic imibhangqwana ye-Classicasmet ye-Treex ingase ingaphucwa yilungelo eliyilungelo nenkululeko. [FLC]bergell] [FLT]

Izisebenziso zamanje kanye neZimpikiswano Ezingaxazululwanga

Namuhla, cishe zonke izimpikiswano ezivelele ezikhona ezihilela ukulwa cishe zihlanganisa ukuvuma, amalungelo okuvota nobandlululo lokukhubazeka.

Isenzo Esiqinisayo Nohlanga

Kusukela ekupheleni kwawo-1970, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yaphikisana noma izinhlanga ezithathelwa phambili zivumela izinhlelo zemfundo ephakeme zingqubuzana ne-Oligine Protection Claus. IRegents zeYunivesithi yaseCalifornia v. Bakke[ [[200]]), iNkantolo yabulala izigaba eziqinile zohlanga kodwa yavumela ukucatshangelwa kwesigaba esisodwa sesigaba seqembu seqembu eliqinile. Esamukeleke futhi yaphinde yaphinde yazi futhi yafaka isithakazelo esinhlanganweni somzimba esihlukene. Izinhlelo ezinjalo zeNkakhulu kumelwe ukuba zibuye zihlolwe futhi zisetshenziswe ngendlela enengqondo [kuhlukweni elingu-Aponse] [[3] [3], lapho iNkakhulu leNkakhulu leMishini yaseNtlangosi engaphezulu] incinti yomthetho ishiyeke khona izinhlelo eziqinile ngenxa yezimiso zomphakathi.[3] [3] [3]

Ukuphambanisa Amalungelo Nokuxuba Izinhlanga

I-Unicime Protection Claus ithuluzi eliyinhloko futhi eliyinselele ekuvoteni imithetho ethinta ngokungenakulinganiswa imiphakathi emincane. INkantolo iye yathi ukukhipha imingcele yesifunda engokohlanga ngenjongo noma umphumela wokudambisa amandla okuvota amancane. Shhaw v. Reno [1993] [iNkathi], iNkantolo yanquma ukuthi izifunda ezimise ngokuyinqaba ezakhiwe ngokuyinqaba ezakhelwe ukuqinisekisa ukukhethwa kwezindawo zokubekela inseleleka imithetho ye-cript eqinile, i-volution yabambalwa efuna ukuvikelwa i-transten. Muva nje, [[FLt:] [FLT] [FLT] .[FLT] [FLT] [3] [3] [2011], i-inkantolo yakhipha isihluthulelo somthetho wokwenza i-Activemous, i-Activedksting, i-Activedk, i-Act, e-196, ele

Ukuwohloka Nesisekelo Se - lapnome

I-Umeal Protection Claus inikeza isivikelo esithile kubantu abakhubazekile, kodwa ibuthakathaka kunesivikelo esinikezwa amaqembu ezinhlanga noma ubulili. Ngenxa yokuthi ukukhubazeka akusona isisombululo esisodwa noma ukuhlelwa ngokuyi-quasissuspect, imithetho ehlukanisayo kubantu abakhubazekile ibukelwa kuphela ngesisekelo esinengqondo. Lokhu kusho ukuthi ukukhubazeka okuningi okusekelwe ekukhubazekeni kuyasekelwa ngaphandle kokuba kumiswe umthetho owenziwe ngokungenamthetho. Nokho, iKhomisha ayidluliswanga umthetho owengeziwe (8) njengomthetho owe-Melika onobukhubazeka (A) kanye no-Odwa abanoMthelela wezemfundo (IDA) Act (-IA). I-A) i-Climate Devition Claus isebenza njengesivikelo somthetho esiqinile ngaphandle kokuba abantu abakhubazekile, iqinisekisa ukuthi abantu abakhubazekile abanakudluliselwa ngokukhubazeka noma ukuphathwa kabi.

Imfundo Nesithembiso Sesivikelo Esilinganayo

Alukho uhlelo oluye lwathonywa kakhulu yi-Uncil Protection Claus kunemfundo yomphakathi. Kusukela ku- Brown[ kuqhubeke, izinkantolo ziye zalwa nokuthi isivikelo esilinganayo sisho ukuthini kubafundi bezinhlanga ezihlukahlukene, izizinda zezenhlalo, kanye namakhono.

Ukuhlukaniswa Kwesikole Nemingcele Yaso

Ngemva [[FLT:] [1968], iNkantolo yasusa ukumemezela ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ngokuyalela ukuyeka amakhambi okuhlanga. Luhlazabs v. County Board [ [1968], iNkantolo yafuna izikole ukuba “zithathe noma yiziphi izinyathelo ezidingekayo ukuze ziguqulelwe esimisweni sobuhlanga kulapho ubandlululo lungasuswa khona impande negatsha.” Kodwa iphupho lesikole esihlangene kakhulu alizange liqaliswe ngokugcwele. Njengoba ukuqalwa kweNkantolo yeNkantolo, iye yanciphisa amathuluzi atholakalayo ukuze kuphumele i-666. [FL:] ku-MLN [5] Bradley] ku-vFlay [5] kungathi amagatsha enqanyukweni lesikole eqediswe isikole eqenjini elikhulu ngaphandle kwezelele ukuthatha imvume yokuzinyuko.[Fodruarnv]

Imithombo Yezemvelo “Ihlukene Kodwa Ilingana” Izinselele Zezomnotho

Enye impikiswano ephikelelayo umehluko omkhulu ekuxhaseni imali phakathi kwezifunda ezicebile nezimpofu. INkantolo Ephakeme, ku-San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez [1773], ikholelwa ukuthi ukuhlukana kwezemfundo ezisekelwe ezinkondleni zemali zezesikole ezisekelwe ezinkokhisweni zempahla zendawo akuzange kungqubanise isivikelo sika Claus esilinganayo, ngoba imfundo ayisona isisekelo esiyisisekelo ngaphansi koMthetho-Mpathiso-mthetho, futhi ingcebo ayisona isigaba esisodwa. Lesinqumo sashiya isikole singekho ndawo enkantolo yombuso nemithetho. Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi, izinkantolo eziningi ziphethe izimiso zezimali zezwe ezisekela intela ezisekela umthetho womthetho, kodwa ihlala phansi.

Ikusasa Lesivikelo Esilinganayo

Njengoba umphakathi waseMelika uba ohlukene ngokwengeziwe futhi ukushintsha kwezindawo ezingokomthetho, i - Exple Protection Clause iyoqhubeka iyindawo eyinhloko yokulwela amalungelo omphakathi.

  • ubandlululo lwe-Algorithmic: lapho ukuhlakanipha kokwenziwa noma isinqumo esizenzekelayo siveza imiphumela engafani ngokwezinhlanga, ingabe ephula isivikelo esilinganayo? Izinkantolo ziqala ukubhekana nalendaba.
  • Ukucwaswa kwezomnotho:[ Kumelwe kuthathwe njengophawu olusolwayo? Ezinye izazi ezingokomthetho ziphikisa ngokuthi isimiso sokuvikela esifanayo kufanele sivikele abantu abathola imali ephansi emithethweni ebathwesa umthwalo omkhulu.
  • Ukwehlukana:[ Izinkantolo kufanele ziwaphathe kanjani amazwi ahlanganisa izici eziningi ezivikelekile, njengohlanga nobulili obuhlukile? Isimiso samanje esineziqeshana ezihlukene asifaneleki kahle kulokhu okushiwo.
  • ubandlululo olusemthethweni: Isivikelo esilinganayo sika Claus sisebenza kuphela esinyathelweni sikahulumeni. Kodwa njengabadlali abangabodwa − njengamaqembu amakhulu nezindawo zobupuleti ze-inthanethi [1]wield impela amandla amakhulu kakhulu phezu kokuphila kwabantu, kusekhona impikiswano ekhulayo yokuthi i-gameter ingakhuliswa ngomthetho noma ngokuchazwa kabusha.

Kubafundi abafuna ukuqhubekela phambili kulezimpikiswano, iqoqo leze-jaji zezentengiselwano ezilinganayo zokuvikela [ linikeza izikhungo, izimpikiswano zomlomo, nemibono kuzo zonke izinqumo ezinkulu zeNkantolo Ephakeme. Ngaphezu kwalokho, i-Civil Rights Division of the U.S. Department [ imisa imithetho elawula amalungelo engokomthetho futhi inikeza isiqondiso ngemibandela yamanje yokugcinwa.

Ukuqinisa UClaus Ngomthetho Nobushiqela

Nakuba izinkantolo zichaza i-Uncimel Protection Clause, uMkhandlu unamandla ngaphansi kweSiqendu 5 seSichibiyelo seshumi nane sokuphoqelela amalungiselelo awo ngomthetho osemthethweni osemthethweni.” Lo mbuso wasetshenziselwa ukudlulisa uMthetho wamaLungu ka-1964 kanye ne-Voting Rights Act ka-1965. Eminyakeni yamuva, iNkantolo Ephakeme ibekelwe amandla alinganiselwe angokomthetho emacaleni anjengawemithetho e i-Boerne v. Isivikelo sesikhathi esizayo esilinganayo singaxhomeke esenzweni sokwahlulela. [FLT.] [FLT.2]

Isiphetho

I-Umeal Protection Claus ayiyona into engokomlando. Ingumyalo ophilayo, ophefumulayo wokuthi zonke izigaba zikahulumeni (nezinga ngalinye) kumelwe ziphathe bonke abantu ngesithunzi nangenhlonipho efanayo. Kusukela e-Jim Crow South kuya ezimpikiswaneni ezinzima zokuvuma, umshado ofanayo, namalungelo okuvota, lo mbhalo ube yisivikelo samaqembu asengozini kanye nomthombo wempikiswano ejulile. Ukuqonda ukuhlelwa kwawo, ukuhlolwa kwawo, ukuhlelwa kwawo okufushanisiwe, nezicelo zawo ezihlobene nakho kubalulekile kunoma ubani ofuna ukuhileleka ngokunenjongo kakhulu ngezindaba ezicindezela kakhulu zesikhathi sethu. Njengoba iMelika iyaqhubeka imelana nokungalingani, isithembiso sokuvikelwa okuhlala kuhleli kusekhona.