Isingeniso: Isisekelo Sokulingana Komthetho - sisekelo

I-Umeal Protection Claus, ephakathi kweSiphendulo se-14th, ingenye yamalungiselelo anamandla kakhulu futhi aphikiswanayo e-Union-bugracy. Yaqiniswa ngo-1868 ngemva kweMpi Yombango, umyalo wayo olula . Ukuthi akukho mbuso “ozokwehlela noma imuphi umuntu onegunya lokuvikela imithetho”.[16] uye waba isisekelo esingokomthetho samalungelo oyinhloko aqhubekela phambili eUnited States. Yinjini yomthetho ewomthetho ewohluze ukuhlukanisa izinhlanga, ehla ubandlululo olusekelwe ebulilini, futhi yandisa ukulingana kwemishadodaba kwayo. Naphezu kokuhlola kwayo imingcele yayo, ikhiphe ukumiswa kwayo okukhulu kwemithetho yeNkakhulu yeNkakhulu yeNkakhulu, futhi iyaqhubeka nokuchazwa kwayo ukuma kwemizwa kwenkululeko yokuvota amalungelo eUnited States, ukuphinde ithole imvume yokungena kweze. Ukuqonda okungoko komlando kudinga ukuqinisekiswa kwayo, ukuhlolwa kwayo, ukuvithwa kwayo, ukuvithwa kwayo, ukuvithwa kwayo, ukuvithwa kwayo, ukuviswa kwayo, ukuvinywa

Isizinda Esingokomlando: Ukwakhiwa Kwesakhiwo Nesithembiso Sokulingana

I-Umeal Protection Claus yazalwa ekuzameni kwezwe lokungalungisi kohlanga ngemva kweMpi yombango. Ukuqedwa kobugqila ngeSichibiyelo se-13th (1865) kwashiya indawo engenamthetho: eyayiyikhosha ngokushesha “Imithetho Emnyama” eyayiwavimbela kakhulu amalungelo abantu baseAfrika abasanda kukhululwa. Ekuphenduleni, i-Constanton Congress yamisa iSimende se-Dintement, eyagunyazwa ngo-1868. I-mendements ephambili yabaklami njengoMphathi uJohn Bingham noSator Jacob Howard (e) yamisa ngokushesha i-Arectory Provice Actal Act of Civil 1866, futhi yanikeza isiqinisekiso sikahulumeni ngokumelene nobandlululo lwezwelo-Pponsor.

  • I-Post-Civil War umongo: Isisho saklanyelwa ukudlula isinqumo esinedumela elibi seNkantolo Ephakeme .Dred Scott v. Sandford [1857], esasithi abantu abamnyama babengezona izakhamuzi.
  • Ukuthatha amakhodi amnyama: Yayihloselwe ukuvimbela izifundazwe ezisanda kukhululwa ukuba ziphathe izigqila njengezakhamuzi zesigaba sesibili.
  • Ukuqinisekisa ukuba izakhamuzi zesizwe: Isigqebhezana sasebenza ekuhlanganiseni ne-Citizenship Clause ukuchaza ubuzibulo kanye nokuqinisekisa ukuphathwa okulinganayo.
  • Isithembiso esiyiphutha: Naphezu kolimi lwayo oluphakeme, lesi sigqebhezana sachithwa cishe ikhulu leminyaka ngokufunda okuncane kweNkantolo Ephakeme ezimweni ezinjenge Icala lendlu lokuhleka [ [1873]) kanye Pnety v.[FLT:] [186] [186], esekela i-oxhunyelate yohlanga ngaphansi kwemfundiso “ehlukene kodwa elinganayo".

Lesi sisho sahlala siphelile kwaze kwaba maphakathi nekhulu lama - 20, lapho inhlangano yamalungelo abantu nochungechunge lwezinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme eziphawulekayo kuvuselela injongo yayo yokuqala.

Umbhalo Wesivikelo SikaClaus Esilinganayo: Umyalo Olula Okhohlisayo

Ulimi oluqondile lwale nkulumo luthi: “Awukho uHulumeni ozokwenza noma ukuphoqelela noma wumuphi umthetho ozovala amalungelo noma ukugoma kwezakhamuzi zase-United States; futhi noma yimuphi uMbuso ngeke unciphe noma yimuphi umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho; noma uphike noma ubani onegunya lakhe lokuvikela imithetho okulinganayo.” Amazwi okugcina asho ukuthi ```nesivikelo semithetho'''''.] [=isivikelo esilinganayo] semithetho yeSikhungo sika Clausleas. Sisebenza kuphela (nawodwa, ohulumeni bendawo), hhayi kuhulumeni abaphethe, nakuba iNkakhulu kamuva “ifake indinganiso efanayo kuhulumeni kahulumeni ngokulandelana kwe-Clayreacle. [FLD] [F][10]

Ubani “Umbusi”?

Inombolo ivikela “noma imuphi umuntu,” hhayi izakhamuzi kuphela. Lolimi olubanzi luye lwahunyushwa luhlanganisa izimboni, izinhlangano, futhi, kwezinye izimo, ngisho nezingane ezingakazalwa (nakuba iNkantolo ayizange ikwazi ukuhlanganisa iziqu zabantwana abangekazalwa). Ukufakwa kwezinkampani kuye kwalandelana kakhulu, njengoba izinhlangano zezebhizinisi ziye zasebenzisa lesi sigigaba ukubekela imingcele yokulahla icala.

Kusho Ukuthini Ukuthi “Isivikelo Esiphelele”?

I-gameter ayifuni ukuba yonke imithetho iphathe wonke umuntu ngendlela efanayo; inqabela ubandlululo oluzenzekelayo noma olubi. Umbuzo oyinhloko uwukuthi uhlelo olukhishwe umthetho lugunyazwe ngenjongo kahulumeni engokomthetho. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yasungula uhlelo olunezici eziningi lokuphendula lowo mbuzo.

Izincazelo Eziyinhloko: Izimpawu Zezwe Ezathonya UClaus

Umlando we - Exlumence Protection Claus uyindaba yokwanda okuguquguqukayo kodwa okujulile. Amacala amaningi aye athuthukisa incazelo yawo. Ngezansi kunezinqumo ezinethonya kakhulu, ezihlukaniswa ngezinhlobo zobandlululo abakhuluma ngazo.

Ubandlululo Lobuhlanga

  • Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954): Icala lokuvikela elidume kakhulu. INkantolo yavumelana ngokuthi ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi kwaphula umthetho, ukugumbuqela Preseby v. Ferguson. Isikhulu iJaji u-FL Warrents sabhala ukuthi “izemfundo zezinhlanga ezisezikoleni zomphakathi azifani.”
  • ukuvala v. Virginia (1967): Imithetho kahulumeni evimbela ukushada kwezinhlanga. INkantolo yahlola ngokuqinile futhi ayitholanga njongo engokomthetho yokuvinjelwa okunjalo, ibiza ngokuthi “yayithanda abantu abakhululekile abazinhlangano zabo zisekelwe emfundisweni yokulingana.”
  • [FLT] u-Palmore v. Sidoti (19984): washo ukuthi inkantolo ayinakuphika ukuwinwa kwezingane kumama ngoba nje yaphinde yashada nendoda yohlanga oluhlukile; ubandlululo lwezigaba ezintathu akusona isisekelo esivunyelwe sesenzo sombuso.
  • Izifundiso zeFair Adgicts v. Harvard [2023] Icala lomjaho eliphambili kakhulu. INkantolo yakholelwa ukuthi izinhlelo zezinhlanga zikhona eHarvard naseYunivesithi yaseNorth Carolina zaphula i-Octal Provice Protectal Claus, ngokuphumelelayo iphethe i-eyebon emfundweni ephakeme.

Ukucwaswa Ngokohlanga

  • 'V. Reed (1971]: Icala lokuqala lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme yashaya umthetho ngezizathu zobandlululo lobufana ngaphansi koMvikeli olinganayo u-Claus. Yalulaza umthetho owenzela amadoda izintando ezizenzekelayo phezu kwabesifazane njengabalawuli bezindawo.
  • [FLT][FLT] Craig v. Boren yamisa indinganiso ephakathi yokuhlelwa kwabesilisa. Inkantolo yashaya umthetho weOklahoma owavumela abesifazane ukuba bathenge utshwala obuphuzwayo obuphansi lapho beneminyaka engu-18 ubudala kodwa kwadingeka amadoda abe yi-21.
  • [FLT] United States v. Virginia (1996] INkantolo yathi ukuvuma kweNhlangano Yempi yabesilisa kuphela kwakuphula umthetho weSivikelo sika Claus olinganayo. UMahluleli uGinsburg wabhala ukuthi umbuso kumelwe unikeze “ukulunga okunamandla okunye” ngokwezigaba ezisekelwe ebufanani.
  • Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): nakuba inqunywe ngokuyinhloko ngaphansi kwe-Cell Programme ye-Claus, iNkantolo futhi yathola ukuthi ibambe isivikelo esifanayo, iqinisekisa imibhangqwana efanayo ye-externet ilungelo lokushada.

Isimo Sokufuduka Nokuhlala Ezindaweni Ezihlukile

  • [FLT] Plyler v. Doe (19982]] INkantolo yakholelwa ukuthi ingenakuphika imfundo yomphakathi yamahhala kubantwana abavela kwamanye amazwe abangabhalwanga. Isinqumo sasebenzisa ukucubungula okuphakathi futhi sagcizelela ukulimala kubantwana nesithakazelo sesizwe kubantu abafundile.
  • [FLT]] m v. Richardson (1971]: Imithetho kahulumeni egobe inzuzo yenhlalakahle ehlala njalo. INkantolo yathi imingcele ehlukile ifanele ihlolwe ngokuqinile.

Ezinye Izici Ezivikelwe

  • Document of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center (1985): Isisekelo esinengqondo sokubukeza kodwa yashaya umthetho wesivumelwano ohlukanisa amakhaya eqembu abantu abakhubazekileyo, ukuthola i-aimus kunokuba kube injongo esemthethweni.
  • [FLT]R Romer v. Evans (1996): Intengiselwano yomthetho-sisekelo evimbela ukuvinjelwa okungokomthetho okusekelwe ekufunekeni kobulili. INkantolo yasebenzisa isisekelo esinengqondo kodwa yathola umthetho ushukunyiswa yi-amicus.
  • [FLT]] Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): isivikelo esilinganayo kwimibhangqwana elinganayo exhunyiwe ngokuqondene nomshado.

Izindinganiso Zokubukeza: Isakhelo Esiboshelwe Kuyi - Frame

The Supreme Court has developed three levels of scrutiny to determineIzinga elisetshenziswayo lixhomeke ekuhlelweni kwemithetho kanye nelungelo layo elithinta.

Ukucwaninga Okuqinile

Uma kusetshenziswa umthetho ohlukanisayo osekelwe “ekwahluleleni” (uhlobo, umsuka wesizwe, ukuphambuka kwezinye izimo) noma umthwalo “owasekuneneni” (ukuthatha izivumelwano, ukuthatha uhambo, ukuthatha uhambo oluphakathi, ukufinyelela ezinkantolo). Ukusinda ekucubungulweni okuqinile, uhulumeni kumelwe abonise ukuthi umthetho ufeza isithakazelo esiphoqelelwe futhi uhloselwe ukufinyelela leyondinganiso efuna okukhulu. [FLT:], imithetho ehlolwe ukucusumbula ngokuqinile cishe njalo. Izibonelo: [[FLT:BN] v. ibhodi yemfundo yezemfundo, [FLT], [FLT:], v[FFLT] [F:]], v [FFFF:3], [FFF], [FFFT], [flglegist], [2]

Ukuhlolwa Okuphakathi

Isetshenziselwa ukuhlukanisa ubulili futhi kwezinye izimo, ukuthatha indinganiso yezesilisa (izingane ezingashadile). Uhulumeni kumelwe ubonise ukuthi umthetho ufeza injongo kahulumeni ebalulekile nokuthi ukuhlelwa kuhlobene kakhulu nokufinyelela lowo mgomo. Lendinganiso ayibekeli ukulinganisela okuqinile kodwa iqine kakhulu kunesisekelo esinengqondo. Izibonelo: Craig v. Boren, [[FLT] United States v., [[FLT:]], [[FLT:]] Plylet. [isibonelo:]

Ukubukeza Okuyisisekelo Kwe - lapnal

Indinganiso enephutha yazo zonke ezinye izigaba (i-age, ukukhubazeka, imithetho yezomnotho, izigebe zokuziphatha kobulili eziningi (kuze kube ] fell)). Umthetho ucatshangelwa njengomthetho-mfakela, futhi inselele kumelwe ibonise ukuthi ukuhlelwa akuhlobene ngokunengqondo nenzalo kahulumeni esemthethweni. Lokhu kuhlobene kakhulu nesithakazelo sikahulumeni; cishe yonke imithetho iyasinda. Nokho, iNkakhulukazi iye yasebenzisa isisekelo esinengqondo nge- “bit" ukushaya imithetho eshukunyiswa yi-actus, njengaku-Clect:2] i-Docurtus Center [FLT][FL:3] futhi [FLD][FFF]][FFFF]].[5]]

Isimiso Sokuhlelwa Esijikelezayo

Inkantolo ngezikhathi ezithile iye yasikisela ukuhlelwa okusha okusolwayo. Ngokwesibonelo, obergefell, amajaji amaningana asikisela ukuthi ukuthambekela kobulili kungadinga ukuhlolwa kakhulu, kodwa iNkantolo ayikakwandisi isimo esisobala ngaphezu kobulili nohlanga. Inkathi nokukhubazeka kuhlala kusekelwe ngokunengqondo, nakuba iSishaya-mthetho siye sanikeza isivikelo phakathi kwenkathi yokucwasana kwe-ARCTism in Act ne-American Livision Act.

Izinkinga Nezinselele Zesikhathi Esizayo

Eminyakeni engaphezu kwengu - 150 ngemva kokugudluzwa, i - Exlumement Protection Claus ilokhu iwumnyombo wezingxabano zezombangazwe nezezomthetho zaseMelika.

Ukusakaza Amalungelo

I-Grander [[FLT: 1] [FLT] [2013]] [INkantolo] yashaya ilungiselelo eliyinhloko le-Voting Rights Act, kodwa i-octriter ye-overtime, ukususwa kwemithetho yokuvota ehlolwayo, nokuhlelwa kokuncintiswa kwe-oversing translation translate. ku-Shelby Counter . Inkantolo ishaya ilungiselelo eliyinhloko le-Votader Act, kodwa i-pane-mesting stance, ukuncishishwa kwemist, nokuhlelwa kwe-impikiswano yezombangazwe akusancintiswa yizinkantolo ze-omfault, kodwa i-orderderder ihlala ibhekene ngokucungasayo e-mpini e-tooglestive, njenge-Overties, futhi iveza iNkathi Ephakeme.

Isenzo Esiqinisayo

Isinqumo sa 2023 ku iziqu ze-Fair Adgicts v. Harvard zaqeda ngokuphumelelayo ukuvuma komjaho ngaphandle kokwazi emfundweni ephakeme. INkantolo yathi noma ikuphi ukusetshenziswa kwezinhlanga kumelwe kwanelise ukucubungula okuqinile, futhi izinhlelo zaseHarvard nase-UNC zehluleka ukuvivinya. Lesisinqumo sesiye sabangela ukuphikisana ngokumelene nezindlela zomqalisi wohlobo futhi samisa izimpikiswano ngokuthi iSikhungo esivamile u-Clauslenqabela zonke izenzo zombuso ezingenalwazi lwezinhlanga, ngisho nalapho zihloselwe ukuqeda ukucwaswa kwemibono yangaphambili. Ezinye izazi ziphikisa ngokuthi umthetho “umbala,” kuyilapho ezinye ziphikisa ukuthi ukuvumela izibalo zohlanga ukuba zifinyelele ukulingana.

LGBTQ+ amalungelo

Nakuba [[FLT: 0] [INkantolo] yawa iqinisekisa ukulingana komshado, isigqebhezana sesivikelo esifanayo siyaqhubeka sisemqoka ezimpini ngenxa yamalungelo adluliswayo. Bostock v. Clayton County[[[FLT:]] [2020], iNkantolo ehunyulwe iSihlo seSihlomo VII [20]] ukuze inqabe ukucwaswa kobandlululo olusekelwe ekubusweni kwemizwelo yocansi, kodwa isigqekezo esilinganayo singanikeza isivikelo esibanzi. [[FLT] Imithetho eminingi iye yamisa ukuvimbela abadlali abaphuma emidlalweni yesikole noma ukuvikelwa kwezingane ukunakekelwa kwabantwana; lemithetho ibhekene izinselele ezifanayo, ngokusebenzisa izingalo ezihlukene zokuhlola. Inkantolo emishakazini ivumelanisa [Fok] [Foct.[4] [2] [5]

Ukuthuthela Ezweni Nezakhamuzi

I-gameter ivikela “noma imuphi umuntu,” ohlanganisa abantu abavela kwamanye amazwe abangabhalwanga. Plyler v. Doe, iNkantolo yavimbela izigaba ekunqabeni imfundo kubantwana abangabhalwanga, kodwa lesosinqumo singaba sengozini yokubekwa inqanyulwa isigaba esiqinile samanje. UMongameli Trump's ukuvinjelwa (ukumiswa [kuvunyelwe [[FLTL: 2]]]Trump v. Hawaii[[FLTL:3], 2018]) wasinda ekubukeleni isisekelo esinengqondo, kodwa imithetho yesikhathi esizayo ebhekene ngendawo engcwele engcwele noma i-yokuba yilungelo lokuhlala ekhona ingabhekenenselele kakhulu. Umbuzo wokuthi umgembuli udinga ukuphatha izakhamuzi abahlala njalo ngokusemthethweni.

Ukutholakala Kwendlela Yokunakekela Impilo

I-Affordble Care Act kaMedicaid nokweshelwa kwezimo zangaphambi kokuba zibe khona kuye kwabekelwa inselele ngezizathu ezilinganayo zokuvikela, nakuba eziningi ziye zahluleka. Muva nje, ukuhlukana kwamanani okufa kukamama phakathi kwabesifazane abamnyama kuye kwaholela ekumangalelweni ngokuthi izinhlelo zezombuso nezobunono zezempilo zikahulumeni ziphule isivikelo esifanayo ngokuhluleka ukusingatha imingcele yobuhlanga. Izinkantolo zimelene nokuthi ukwenqaba kweminye imibuso uMedididid ngaphansi kwe-A i-A kuyindlela yokucwasana nezakhamuzi ezithola imali ephansi, nakuba iNkantolo ngokuvamile iye yakholelwa ukuthi izinhlelo zengcebo zihlolwa kuphela isisekelo esinengqondo.

Isiphetho: Isiqinisekiso Esiphilayo

I-Umeal Protection Claus ayisona isimemezelo esiqinile kodwa isiqinisekiso esiphilayo esisho ukuthi incazelo yayo iye yaqala ngokuphawulekayo kusukela ngo-1868. Isithembiso saqala njengesithembiso kubesifazane abasanda kukhululwa, abafuduki, abantwana abangashadile, abantu abakhubazekile, ne-LGBTQ. Isimo esiqinile sokuhlola u-(kabilicel), phakathi, futhi esinengqondo esisekelwe kulokhu kuchaza isimo esivumelanayo, kodwa ukusebenza kweNkantolo kuleyo migqa kuye kwabonisa kaningi isimo somphakathi nezombangazwe. Ikusasa leNkanto ehosakhiwe liyolo liyolongwa yindlela iNkathi Ephakeme ephendula ngayo imibuzo eyisisekelo: Umthetho umpumputhe? Ingabe idinga imiphumela elinganayo noma ukunakekelwa nje? Uhulumeni ungahlela noma ukuhlelwa kwezimiso ezisekelweni zocalu hlobo lobulili?

Njengoba kuvela izinhlangano ezintsha zezenhlalo futhi ukungalingani okudala kuqhubeka, i-Uncil Protection Claus ihlala inkundla yempi engokomthetho encintisana kuyo incazelo yokulingana. Kubafundi, othisha, nezakhamuzi, ukuqonda umlando wayo, isisekelo semfundiso yayo, kanye nezicelo zayo zamanje zibalulekile ekuhlanganyeleni kulezompikiswano. Amagama alula alesi sixazululo ("ukuvikelwa ngokulinganayo kwemithetho ) kuhlala kuqinile futhi kuphikiswana nanamuhla njengango-1868.

[[FLT: 0] Ukuze uqhubeke ufunda, hlola i-Constitution, iproject [ ye-Oyez [[[[FLT:]] yemiba ePhakathi yeNkantolo edluliselwa ngomlomo, futhi ibukeze izihloko ezithizentengiselwano ezihlobana nesivikelo. Izibalo eziyinhloko: [FLT:] Brown v. Board yemfundo (Julium: 6,]], [[FLT]]][FLT]]][FLT: 07]]][oyez].[FLT][FL:8], [2],[FLT]]]