Izinguquko zezwe eNdiya ziye zafeza indima ebalulekile ekulolongeni isimo sezenhlalo nezomnotho zalelizwe. Lezi zinguquko zazama ukuxazulula ukungalingani okujulile kokubekwa kwendawo, ukuchitha izakhiwo zezikhulu, nokukhuthaza ukuhlakazeka kwezwe ngokulinganayo phakathi kwabantu basemaphandleni. Ukuqonda izici ezingokomthetho ezihambisana nalezi zinguquko kubalulekile ukuze kuhlolwe ithonya lazo, izinselele ezibhekene nazo, nemizamo eqhubekayo yokucwenga uhlelo lwezwe olungokomthetho. Amathambo ezwe anezinguquko ezingokomthetho − − ukuhlanganisa izinhlelo zomthetho wemithetho, imithetho yemithetho yemithetho, kanye nezincazelo zokwahlulela zombili ezilula futhi ziyinkimbinkimbi inqubo yokuguqula inguquko. Lesi sihloko sinikeza ukuhlola okubanzi kwezingathwiso-mthetho eNdiya, ukuhlola imisuka yawo, ukuhlola izinselele zamuva ezingokomthetho, nokuhlola izinselele eziqhubekayo zezomthetho.

Izinguquko Ezingokomlando Zamazwe ENdiya

Ngaphambi kokuzimela, isakhiwo samakoloni saseNdiya sasiphawuleka ngokugodlelana okukhulu ngaphansi kwezimiso ezihlukahlukene − u-zamindari, i-ryotwari, ne-mahalwari , kanye nesigaba sayo siqu somphathisi esasiqasha abalimi. Lokhu kwadala isimiso sokuxhaphaza okukhulu esagcina lezi zakhiwo, ngaphambi kokuba kugcinwe izimali ngenxa yobulungisa bezenhlalo. Izwe ngokuvamile laligcinwa abanikazi bezindawo ezingekho, kuyilapho abalimi bangempela babengenamalungelo alinganiselwe noma bengenawo nhlobo ezweni ababelima kulo. Lokhu kwadala isimiso sokuxhaphaza okukhulu esagcina umphakathi ubumpofu.

Ngemva kwenkululeko, uhulumeni waseNdiya waveza izinguquko zomhlaba njengensika eyinhloko yokuguqula izenhlalo nezomnotho. IPlan yokuqala yonyaka wesihlanu (1951-56) yasho ngokucacile ukuthi izinguquko zezwe zazibalulekile ekuthuthukiseni umkhiqizo wezolimo nasekuthuthukiseni ubulungisa bezenhlalo. Izinhlelo zenguquko zazihlanganisa izakhi ezintathu eziyinhloko:

  • Ukuthola indawo yamamedia [[FL:1] (ama-zaminder, i-jagirdars, njl.) ukuze kuxhunyane isimo ngokuqondile nabalimi.
  • Izinguquko zokuqapha [ ukuze kuvikelwe futhi kuqondiswe izintela.
  • [ umthetho wophahla lwezwe [ wokwabela izwe elisele phakathi kwabangenazwe.
  • Ukuqiniswa kwezingxenyana [[[QL:1] ukuthuthukisa ukusebenza kahle.

Imishini engokomthetho yalezinguquko kwadingeka yakhiwe kusukela ekuqhelaneni. Izifunda-mazwe eziningana ezimisa imithetho yokuqeda i-zaminali, ngokuvamile eholela ekuhlaziyweni okuthatha isikhathi eside. Abakhi boMthetho-sisekelo baqaphela isidingo sokuvikela lemithetho yenguquko empikiswaneni yokwahlulela ngaphansi kwamalungelo ayisisekelo, eyaholela ekulungiseni ukulungisa okukhethekile komthetho-mthetho-sisekelo okuhlala kusemqoka endabeni engokomthetho yezinguquko zezwe.

Ukuklanyelwa Izinguquko Ezingokomthetho

Amalungiselelo Omthetho - sisekelo

I-Indiya Constitution inikeza kokubili isisekelo nemingcele yokuguqula izwe. Ekuqaleni, imithetho yokulungisa izwe yabhekana nezithiyo ngaphansi kweSiphakamiso 31, esiqinisekisa ilungelo lempahla. Imithetho yokuqala yokunqanda i-zamilia yabekelwa inselele ngenxa yokwephula lelilungelo eliyisisekelo. Ukunqoba ukumelana nomthetho-mthetho, uMthetho-sisekelo waguqulwa izikhathi eziningana. Isihluthulelo sihlanganisa:

  • Isichibiyeli Sokuqala (1951): Faka Izihloko 31A no 31B, okwabeka imithetho yokuguqula izwe ngaphandle kwenselele ngaphansi kweSiphakamiso 14, 19, no 31 seSiphakamiso 31B sasungula iNinth Scheme, lapho imithetho ingabekwa khona ukuze ivikeleke ekubukezweni kokwahlulela.
  • Isichibiyeli sesine (19555): Ingxenye yeSiphakamiso 31A futhi yacacisa ukuthi isinxephezelo sokuthola akudingekile ukuba kube inani lezentengiselwano, okwenza umbuso unqume isilinganiso esilinganiselwe.
  • Isichibiyeli seFourth esingamashumi amane nesithathu (1978): ISiphakamiso 31 (ilungelo lempahla) njengelungelo eliyisisekelo futhi sasenza saba nelungelo lomthetho-sisekelo ngaphansi kweSiphakamiso 300A, esinikeza ukuthi akukho muntu oyophucwa impahla ngegunya lomthetho.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, i-Draictive Principles of State Policy, ikakhulukazi iSiphakamiso 39(b) kanye (c), ifuna ukuba kuhlangane ukwabiwa kwemithombo yengcebo nokuvinjelwa kokugcinwa kwengcebo, inikeza imfuneko yokuziphatha nomthetho-sisekelo yenguquko yomhlaba. Izishaya-mthetho zikahulumeni ngokuyinhloko zinamandla okumisa imithetho yokuguqula izwe ngaphansi kokungena 18 (Izwe) yoHlelo lwezwe kuyiSeventh Steptein.

Imithetho Engenaluzwela

Ngokushesha ngemva kwenkululeko, isho u-Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, noMadras ukuba bamise umthetho wokuqeda ama-mediary. I-UP Zamitari Abolition and Land Reforms Act, 1950, iyisibonelo esivelele. Lemithetho yayiwacima amalungelo e-zamipitards, yawafaka embusweni, futhi yawanikeza amalungelo okusebenza abalimi abangokoqobo. Nokho, inhlawulo lwamazamiri Abrition, futhi inqubo engokomthetho yayivame ukuthatha kancane futhi incintiswa. Ekupheleni kwawo-1950, izifundazwe eziningi zawaqeda amalungelo ezisebenzi, nakuba ngokuvamile abaqashi bengazange bamukele amalungelo okuzi.

Imithetho Ekhohlisayo Yomhlaba

Ukubekwa kophahla lwenhlabathi olusesilinganisweni sezwe umuntu angalibamba, kwakuyinguquko eyisihluthulelo eyayihloselwe ukukhipha indawo esele. Imingcele yokulinika yayihlukahluka ngokwezwe nangohlelo lwezwe (izinsika ezigawuliwe.). Ngokuvamile, uphahla lwangaphakathi lwalusukela kumahektare ayishumi kuya kwangu-54, futhi isilinganiso esiphansi sokuniselwa kwendawo. Izwe lase-Superse lalizothengwa ngumbuso futhi labelwa izisebenzi zasemasimini nabalimi amancane.

Ukusetshenziswa okungokomthetho kwemithetho yophahla kwabonakala kunzima kakhulu. AmaLandlord asebenzisa amasu ahlukahlukene ukuze agweme uphahla: ukuthengiselana (ukuthatha indawo ngamagama abanye), ukwenza izindawo ezingekho mthethweni, ukuguqula indawo, nokuhlela i-palign. Izifunda eziningi zanikeza imithetho kaphahla ngawo-1960 nawo 1970, kodwa indawo esele yatholakala futhi yasakazwa yayingaphansi kakhulu kwempoqo. Ngokwesibonelo, ekuqaleni kwawo-1990, cishe amaphesenti amahlanu kuphela ezwe elikhohlisiwe ayethiwe ayanele, futhi amaningi ayo ayeyimithetho ephansi.

Izinguquko Ezinzima

Izinguquko eziqinile ezihloselwe ukuvikela abalimi abasebenza ngokuqasha ekuxoshweni ngenkani, zilawule intela yokuqasha (ngokuvamile efaka intela ku 20-25% yemikhiqizo), futhi ekugcineni zinikeze abaqashi amalungelo okuba abaqashi ngemva kwesikhathi esithile. Izifundazwe eziningi zidlulise iTenancy Acts, njengeBombay Tenancy ne-Agricultural Lands Act, 1948, kanye ne-Keralara Land Reformes Act, 1963. Lemithetho yaveza imiqondo enjengokuthi “bathengwa” lapho abaqashi babengathenga khona indawo ababeyilima.

Nokho, izinguquko zamuva zazenziwa abanikazi bezindawo zokuhlala ngokuthi bayizisebenzi noma abasebenzi ababodwa, noma ngokusebenzisa izivumelwano zomlomo. Ezimweni ezinjenge-West Bengal, i-Octal Barga (1988) ezibhaliwe zifaka abaphathi ababhaliswayo futhi zinikeze ukulondeka, kodwa ukusungula kwahlukahluka kakhulu kulo lonke izwe. Ukusebenza kwe-Agricultural Land Light Act, 2016 (udwetshwe yi-NTIAyoglog) kumelela umzamo wamuva nje wokukhulula nokukhuthaza ukuphatha ngokusemthethweni ngokuvumela abenikazi ukuba bafake indawo ngokuphepha ngokuphepha kuyilapho bevikela amalungelo abaqashi bethola amalungelo okutholwa, kodwa amazwe ahlala elinganiselwe.

Izinselele Nezinkinga Ezingokomthetho

Izingxabano Zezwe Nokuqamba Amanga

Enye yezinselele ezinkulu kakhulu ezingokomthetho kuye kwaba ukukhushulelwa kwecala elivela ekusetshenzisweni kwenguquko yomhlaba. Ukungavumelani nezindawo ezivamile, ukuhlukanisa indawo okusele, nokukhokhelwa kuye kwavala izinkantolo iminyaka engamashumi amaningi. Ngisho nangemva kokuphindaphindwa kwemithetho eminingi yezwe yakudala, ukuvumelana kwecala. Ngokwesibonelo, izimpikiswano ezihlobene [no- intengiselwano yemali [ [izinto ezikhona] (ukugodlela impahla ngaphansi kwamagama angamanga) kudinga ukuphenywa nokuqulwa okuthatha isikhathi eside. I-Benini Transetkets (Prodition) Act, 1988 (endmented 2016) isetshenziselwa ukubophana izwe eliphethwe ngokungemthetho, kodwa ukugcinwa kwalo kuyacotha.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, umehluko phakathi kwezwe lokulima nelingalimo-yolimo ($FLT:1]) uphawule ukuthi kwezinye izindawo, ngaphezu kwesithathu secala lesifunda sihilela ukuxabana. Bheka: u-PR: Land Disputes ne Land Records[FLT:].

Amanani Ezwe Angenayo Imali Nokubhaliswa Kwawo

Imfuneko engokomthetho eyisisekelo yanoma yisiphi inguquko yezwe inembile, i-aster-spect i-odated. Ngeshwa, isimiso sokuqopha amarekhodi ezwe saseNdiya siye sadume kabi. Izifundazwe eziningi zisathembele emarekhodini ezandla angaphelele noma angagunyaziwe. I-Inconsistencies phakathi kweRecord of Rights (RRR), ukuhlola amabalazwe, kanye nezincwadi zokubhalisa zidala izivumelwano ezingokomthetho. I-Religita Act, 1908, ifuna ukubhalisa ngokusemthethweni yonke indawo, kodwa ukubhalisa akuqinisekisi isihloko sokuthutha. Lokhu kuholela ekufuneni iphakethi elingu linye futhi kuvumela ukukhohliswa.

Uhulumeni wamisa i- Digal India Records Modernation Programme (DILRMP) ngo- 2008 ukuze enze amarekhodi ekhompuyutha nokuvuselela, ukuhlanganisa amarekhodi ezwe, futhi uqhubekele kumarekhodi emali ebhaliwe. Intuthuko ayizange ilingani; ezinye izifundazwe ezifana ne-Gujaratat, Karnaka, ne-Maharashtra zenze izisekelo eziphawulekayo, kuyilapho ezinye ziwumbikweni. Umbiko wangoweNkonzo ye-Balbal Development wabonisa ukuthi nakuba 88% yemibhalo yayenze yahlanganiswa, i-45% kuphela yayihlangene nemininingwane yokubhalisa. Bheka: [[FL:] DILP]

Ukuphuma Kwemithetho Yokuzitika Nemithetho Eshintshayo KaBenami

Naphezu kwamashumi eminyaka emithetho yophahla, ukugwenywa kwesilinganiso esikhulu kuye kwaphikelela. Abakhokhi bezwe baye basebenzisa amathuluzi angokomthetho anjengezipho, ifa, ifa, izimali, namalungiselelo okugcina izakhiwo ngaphansi kophahla. iBenami Transactions (Isivumelwano) Act, 1988 yabekwa ukuba inqande lokhu, kodwa yangabi namazinyo iminyaka eminingi. Ngo-2016, ukubuyiselwa okukhulu kwale mithetho kuvela isijeziso, kuhlanganise nokuboshwa nokuhlwiswa kwempahla ye-benami. Nokho, i-Sivumelwano ngaphansi koMthetho we-Act sihamba kancane, futhi izindaba eziningi zisekhona ngaphambi kokuba i-Benpostmella Crime Trime Crime.

Izincazelo zokwahlulela ziye zathinta futhi ukugcinwa komthetho. Ngokwesibonelo, iNkantolo Ephakeme [ku-R. K. Arora v. State of Uttar Pradesh (1962) yakholelwa ukuthi imithetho yophahla kumelwe ithathwe ngokusemthethweni, futhi iziqu zamacala angaphezulu zisekela umnikazi. Izinqumo ziye zanciphisa amandla ombuso okuvula kabusha izakhiwo ezimisiwe. Lezizithiyo ezingokomthetho zisho ukuthi imithetho eminingi yamazwe azimele asinda ekutholeni imvume.

Ubandlululo Olusemithethweni Yamazwe

Enye impikiswano ephindaphindwayo engokomthetho ubulili obungavumelani namalungelo ezwe. Ngokomlando, imithetho yefa evumela amadoda, nezinguquko ngokuvamile zasusa abesifazane. UMthetho we-Hindu Fromfision, 1956, wanika abesifazane amalungelo alinganayo nezwe lokulima ngemva kokulungisa ngo 2005, okusebenza kuzo zonke izizwe ngo-* kodwa ukumiswa kwemithetho yemithetho yemithetho kulokhu kushiyeka kubuthakathaka. Imithetho eminingi yezwe isaqaphela kuphela “inhloko yendlu” njenge-tenant, ngokwesiko labesilisa. Amakhosikazi abhekene nezinselele ezithile ekufuneni amalungelo asekhaya. Nakuba abanye bethi njengamarashtra noKarnatanaka benze amalungiselelo ezihloko ezihlangene ezweni, umphumela uwonke ulinganiselwe. Bheka: [[FLD:] [FLD] USAID Land: Abesifazane, nezwe eliseNdiya.[FEN.]

Intuthuko Nezinguquko Zamuva

Ukushintshaniswa Kwemibhalo Yezwe Yanamuhla

I-DILRMP ibiyisimiso esihamba phambili, kodwa intuthuko yamuva ihlanganisa ukusungulwa kwemitapo yezibalo , ukuhlanganiswa ne-Adahaar ukuze ithole, kanye nemisebenzi yomshayeli yokuqinisekisa ukuthi i-indawo ekhethiwe. Ngo-2020, uhulumeni wasungula futhi [[FLT:] i-Model Lands System[ ukwenza amafomati ahleleke ngokwendlela ehlukene. Nokho, ukuphenya amarekhodi angokomthetho enqubo yokubhalisa. [FT] Izwe elinothiwe ngokuningiliziwe, kodwa u-Earthreandrendstions winds winds wind:[5] kodwa u-edivolution:[FLT]

Isinyathelo Sokuthulula Izwe Eliyizibonelo, 2016

Ukunikeza imvume yokuqasha izakhiwo ngenguquko ehleliwe, u-NITI Aayog wasikisela i-Model Land Lutting Act ngo-2016. Lesi senzo sivumela abanikazi bendawo ukuba baqashe indawo ngaphandle kokwesaba ukulahlekelwa ubunikazi, kuyilapho benikeza abaqashi indawo elondekile. Ivumela ukuqashwa ngomlomo (ngencwadi ebhaliwe), ukuqashwa okulinganiselwe, kanye nesivikelo ekunqandeni ukuxoshwa phakathi nesikhathi sokuboshelwa. Kusukela ngo-2023, amazwe ambalwa kuphela anjengo-Uttar Pradesh no-Utakhand aye amukela izinguqulo zalekiso zalesibonelo. Inselele engokomthetho iwukulinganisela ukuvumelana kokusebenza komsebenzi womninindlu ngokuphepha okuqinile nezindlela zokuxolisa ngokwethulisa.

Ukusabela Kokwahlulela Nezinqumo Zenkantolo Eyinhloko

INkantolo Ephakeme iye yakhipha izahlulelo eziningana ezibalulekile ezithinta izinguquko zezwe eshumini leminyaka elidlule. Izwe laseKerala v. K. S. ABHILAS (2022]), iNkantolo igcizelela ukuthi izinguquko zezwe ziyinqubo eqhubekayo futhi ukuthi ohulumeni kumelwe baqinise imithetho yabo ngokuvumelana nezinjongo zomthetho-sisekelo. [[FLT:]] Umthumeli we-Intex (Intection) v. Andabaralment Development [ (20) Imithetho echazwe izwe, ingenze inguquko ye-inguquko, inkantolo ehlangene nezingakhokhwayo ezinikezwayo ngokusemthethweni, futhi i-ftrumplations. Icala elibalulekile, [FLT] B.N.V. i-Karna.[20] I-kakadevrence yemithetho ebekwe i-enziwe ngokulungisa ukuthi isebenza imvume ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho.

Izinqumo Zomthetho - sisekelo Nesimiso Sezikhathi Zesishiyagalolunye

I-Segepor ye-Ninth Schelle, evikela imithetho ekubukezweni kwenkemba yokwahlulela, ibiyimithetho egobe iphiwe ngokuphikiswana. Nakuba ivumela imithetho yokuguqula izwe ephikiswayo ukuba ikwazi ukumelana nezinselele zakudala, iNkantolo ePhakathi e.R. Coelho v. State of Tamil Nadu (2007) ikholelwa ukuthi imithetho ebekwe eNinth Scheme ngemva kuka-197 isengabukezwa ngaphansi kwemfundiso ye-“bacrac". Lokhu kwenza ukuba imithetho ethile yezwe yamuva iguqulele izinselele zemithetho yomthetho-mthetho-mthetho. Ohulumeni abaningana manje baphinde baphindelela imithetho yabo yenguquko ezweni ukuze baqinisekise ukuthi abanamalungelo abalulekile, ikakhulukazi elungele ukulingana nokuhlala ngaphansi kwe-A.

Isiphetho

Izici ezingokomthetho zezinguquko zezwe eNdiya ziyinkimbinkimbi futhi zilokhu zijikeleza. Umthetho-sisekelo, kanye nomthetho-mthetho ocacisiweyo, uye wadala imithetho ehlukene ehloselwe ukufinyelela ubulungisa bezenhlalo kodwa ngokuvamile iyahluleka ngenxa yokukhipha izikhala, ukuhlaziywa, nokukhishwa kwenguquko. Ifa elingokomlando le-zamitari nokuxhashazwa kwemithetho eqinile kusanikeza ithemba elide, futhi izinselele eziningi ezingokomthetho, kanye nemithetho eqinile, kanye nemithetho eqinile, ukuthenwa kwemithetho esemthethweni, ukuhlelwa kwenani elihlukene, ukucwasana kwabesifazane, nokungalawuleki kwezelulekwa kwezeluleko kwezenhlalakahle yezenhlalo, kanye nokungatshathathiwe kwezahlulelwa. Izindlela zamuva ezinjenge-DILRMP, i-Livetting Act, nezinguquko ezingokomthetho zinikeza ithemba ngempumelelo enkulu futhi zinikeza wonke umbuso ongokomthetho ongokomthetho. Nokho, ukugcinwa kwemithetho engoko kuthuthukisa ukuthuthukisa ukuthuthuka kwezentengo yomphakathi engokwenhlalo yezenhlalo.