Imisuka Engokomlando YeSichibiyelo Sesine

ISichibiyelo sesine asizange siphume ekungabini nalutho. Umsuka waso ungene ekulweni namakoloni alwa namaNgisi. Eminyakeni eholela ekuvukeleni kweMelika, iziphathimandla zaseBrithani zasebenzisa umthetho wemvume ne yosizo ukuqhuba ukuphenya amakhaya, amabhizinisi, nemikhumbi ngaphandle kwesizathu esiqondile. Lezi ziphathi zezezeze zivumele izikhulu zamasiko ukuba zihlole noma iyiphi indawo eshushumbiwe, ngokuvamile ngaphandle kwesaziso futhi kungekho mfuneko yokusho igama lendawo noma izinto. Abaholi babheka le mikhuba njengendlela yokuhlasela ngokuqondile impahla yomuntu siqu.

Icala elingunyaka ka 1761 i-Assisten Case eMassachusetts, lapho ummeli osemusha uJames Otis aphikisa khona ukuthi izimvume ezinjalo “ziyithuluzi elibi kakhulu lokulawula amandla omthetho, inkululeko ebhubhisa kakhulu yamaNgisi.” Impikiswano yakhe yakhetha amakoloni futhi yatshala izimbewu zalokho okwakuyoba iSiphendulo Sesine. Ngesikhathi iBill of Rights ibizwa ngo-1789, amaFramers ayezimisele ukuvimbela uhulumeni omusha ukuba angaphindaphindi ukuxhaphaza. Baphikelela ngokuthi noma ikuphi ukuphenywa noma ukuphaza kumelwe kushiywe ngokulunga okuqondile, okuvunyelwa amamastistriot, futhi okungalinganiselwe.

Ukuze uthole isizinda esijulile kokuhlangenwe nakho kwamakoloni nemvume evamile, bheka iNational Constitution Center ukuhlolwa [.

Ulimi Lwesichibiyelo Sesine

Umbhalo ngokwawo awugwegwesi kodwa unamandla:

“ Ilungelo labantu lokulondeka kubantu babo, ezindlini, emaphepheni, nasemiphumeleni, ngokumelene nokuphenya okungacabangeki nokuquleka, ngeke liphulwe, futhi akukho mithetho enikezwayo, kodwa cishe, isekelwe noma isiqinisekiso, futhi ikakhulukazi ichaza indawo okumelwe iphenywe, nabantu noma izinto ezizothathwa.”

Lomusho owodwa umisa izivikela ezimbili eziyinhloko. Okokuqala, uqinisekisa ilungelo elivamile lokukhululeka elingenangqondo [ ukusesha nokuquleka — kodwa phawula ukuthi akunqabeli konke ukuphenya, kuphela okungenangqondo. Okwesibili, imisa izimfuneko eziqinile zesiqinisekiso: kumele zisekelwe entweni elindelekile, zisekelwe emazwini ayisifungo, futhi zichaze ngokukhethekile indawo okumelwe iphenywe futhi abantu noma izinto ezimelwe ziphathwe.

Izimfundiso Zomkhonto Nezindinganiso Ezishintshayo

Ukulindela Ukuba Wedwa Okunengqondo

Emlandweni omningi waseMelika, izinkantolo zanquma ukuthi ukuhlola kwakwenzekile ngokubheka icala elingokoqobo — ukuthi uhulumeni wangena ngokoqobo endaweni eyimfihlo yini. Lokho kwashintsha ngokuphawulekayo ngecala leNkantolo Ephakeme ngo1967 Katz v. United States[. [[FLT]]] [[FLT] Katz [[[FLT:]] [[FLT]]] [iicala], iNkawunqume ukuthi iSimende sesine sivikela abantu, hhayi izindawo. Isinqumo samisa ukulindele okunengqondo kwemfihlo [[:]: ukuhlola: lapho umuntu ebonise ukulindele okungokoqobo, okuqondisweyo ukuthi ucingo, (2) ulindele ukuthi umphakathi ukulungele ukuqaphela ukuthi umphakathi uyakwazi.

Lokhu kuhlola sekuyindinganiso yokuhlaziya kwanamuhla kweSichibiyelo sesine. Ngokwesibonelo, umuntu osebenzisa igumbi locingo lomphakathi ulindele ukuba ingxoxo yakhe ingabi nakutshelwa ngaphandle kwemvume. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, lokho umuntu aziyo ukuthi kuveza umphakathi — njengokuzwa izwi labo ensimini esobala — akuvikelwe. Katz [ isisekelo sendlela yokwaziswa siyaqhubeka siveza, ikakhulukazi njengendlela entsha yobuchwepheshe ebekela inselele imibono engokwethulo engokwesiko.

Imbangela Enengqondo

Imbangela eqinisekile iyindinganiso yomthetho-sisekelo okumelwe ihlangatshelwe ngaphambi kokuba isiqinisekiso sikhankanyeke. Kusho ukuthi umuntu onengqondo, ngokusekelwe engqikithini yezimo, angakholelwa ukuthi ubugebengu buye benziwa noma ukuthi ubufakazi bobugebengu buzotholakala endaweni ethile. Imbangela engenzeka idinga okungaphezu kwenhlansi noma ukusola nje, kodwa ayidingi ukuqiniseka. Kungumqondo ongokoqobo, ongasekelwe ekhonweni, owenziwe ngamaqiniso nangezimo ezinikezwa kumajaji.

Uma kuqalwa, izikhulu zamaphoyisa zivame ukubonisa ukuthi kungenzeka zibangele ngezimpawu ezichaza ukuziphatha, amacebiso aqashelwe, ubufakazi obungokoqobo, noma ukuqapha. Indima yemantshi iwukukhipha isahlulelo esizimele esingase sihlangane nesizathu. Lokhu kuhlola kokwahlulela kubalulekile ukuze kuvinjelwe inqubo yokugunyaza ukuba ingabi isitembu senjoloba.

Imfuneko Yempi Nezinto Ezihlukile

ISichibiyelo sesine sithandwa yimithetho. Nokho, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yaqaphela ukuthi ukufuna imvume kuzo zonke izimo kungaqeda ukugcinwa komthetho futhi, kwezinye izimo, kufake ukuphepha komphakathi engozini. Ngenxa yalokho, iNkantolo iye yaveza izinto eziningi ezihlukile ezibekwe kahle. Lokhu akuzona izigwegwe; kusekelwe esimisweni esifanayo sobuhlakani esiqinisa konke ukulunga.

Isihluthulelo salokhu sihlanganisa:

  • I-Conict:[ Uma umuntu evuma ngokuzithandela ukuseshwa, akukho mvume edingekayo. Nokho, imvume kumele inikezwe ngokukhululekile, hhayi iphoqelelwe, futhi izinga lokufuna lilinganiselwe kulokho umuntu avumayo.
  • Umbono oPlain Trinity: Uma isikhulu sikhona ngokomthetho endaweni futhi sibona umphamba noma ubufakazi ngokubona okusobala, leyonto ingabanjwa ngaphandle kwemvume. Lento kumelwe ivele ngokushesha njengembangela.
  • Sesha Ithuba lokuboshwa: Lapho kuboshwa ngokomthetho, isikhulu singase sifune umthunjwa nendawo engaphansi kokulawula kwaso okusheshayo ukuze sivikele ukuphepha kwesikhulu futhi sivimbele ukubhujiswa kobufakazi. Lokhu kukhishwa akudluleli kulo lonke ikhaya noma imoto ngaphandle kokulunga okwengeziwe.
  • Izimo ezingathi shubi: Ezimweni eziphuthumayo — njengokuphishekela ngokuphuthumayo ukusolwa, ukubhujiswa okuseduze kobufakazi, noma ingozi yokulimala kwabanye — izikhulu zingangena zifune ngaphandle kwemvume. Umthwalo usohulumeni ukuze kufakazelwe ukuthi izimo zisithethelela ngempela isenzo esingenasizathu.
  • Imoto Ehambayo Ehlukanisiwe: Ngenxa yokuthi izimoto zihamba futhi zingahanjiswa ngaphambi kokuba kutholakale incwadi, izikhulu ezikwazi ukukholelwa ukuthi imoto inesizathu sokukholelwa ukuthi inobufakazi bobugebengu zingase zifune imoto ngaphandle kwemvume. Lokhu kumboza imoto yonke, kuhlanganise nezitsha ezivaliweyo ezitholakala ngaphakathi.
  • Ima ne Frisk (Ima Eliqinile): Ngaphansi [[FT:2] Terry v.Ohio (1968), isikhulu singamisa umuntu osekelwe ekusoleni okunengqondo kobugebengu futhi, uma isikhulu sikholelwa ukuthi umuntu uhlomile futhi uyingozi, siphethe isilinganiso esilinganiselwe sokuqeda izikhali. Lokhu kuseshwa, kodwa kungaphansi kokufuna okuphelele kwesehlolwa ubugebengu.

Uma ubheka i-pact-partment, i-Cornell Legin Information Institute inikeza ukucubungula okuningiliziwe.

Izinqumo ZeNkantolo Eziphakeme Eziphawuleka Kakhulu

Amacala amaningi eNkantolo Ephakeme aye athuthukisa iSichibiyelo Sesine somthetho.

Weeks v. United States (1914)

Phambi [[FLT: 0] , lalingekho ikhambi eliphumelelayo lokwephulwa komthetho wesine Isichibiyeli. Uma amaphoyisa ayeqhuba ukuphenya okungekho emthethweni, ubufakazi babungasetshenziswa enkantolo. ] AmaWeek[ ashintsha ukuthi ngokudala [[FLT:] i-exclusions [, okuvimbela ukumangalelwa ekusebenziseni ubufakazi obutholakele ekwaphulweni kweSichibiyeli sesine. Ekuqaleni, lomthetho wasebenza kuphela ezinkantolo zikahulumeni, kodwa kamuva wanwetyelwa ezinkantolo zezwe [[FLT]. v[FL:]

Mapp v.O.1961)

, iNkantolo yathi umthetho wokuhlukanisa usebenza ezinkantolo zikahulumeni nge-Celasmest Procession of the 1450 Reformation. Lesi sinqumo sashintshwa kakhulu isifundazwe nomthetho wendawo, siphoqelela amaphoyisa ukuba avumelane nezindinganiso zomthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni noma alahlekelwe ubufakazi obugxekayo. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi umthetho wokususa icala uvumela abamangalelwa abanecala ukuba bakhululeke, kodwa abasekeli baphikisa ngokuthi kuyisithi isithi ivimbela elidingekile ekuphoqeleleni ukuziphatha okubi kwamaphoyisa.

Terry v.O.1968)

Icala elithi “misa nokuthatha i-frak” lathola ukuthi iSichibiyelo sesine asidingi sizathu esilindelekile sokuhlangana ngakunye namaphoyisa. Kunalokho, indinganiso ephansi — ukusola okunengqondo — yanele ngokumisa iphethiloli kanye nokuyeka izikhali okulinganiselwe. I-Terry ukuphepha kwesikhulu ngamalungelo abantu ngabanye futhi ihlala iyindawo encintisana kakhulu, ikakhulukazi mayelana nokuncintisana kwezinhlanga.

New Jersey v. T.L.O. (1985)

Lelicala lakhuluma ngamalungelo eSichibiyelo sesine sabafundi besikole somphakathi. INkantolo yanquma ukuthi izikhulu zesikole azidingi imvume noma isizathu esingenzeka sokufuna umfundi; kunalokho, zidinga ukusola [ okunengqondo kuphela] kokuthi ukuphenya kuzoveza ubufakazi bokuphula umthetho wesikole. Lokhu kuhlola kumelwe futhi kube okunengqondo. Lendinganiso ephansi iqaphela isithakazelo sesikole ekulondolozeni ukuhleleka kodwa isavikela abafundi ekuphenyeni okungenangqondo.

RILEY v. California (2014

Esinqumweni esivumelanayo, iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi amaphoyisa ngokuvamile kumelwe athole isiqinisekiso ngaphambi kokuhlola okuqukethwe ucingo oluphathwayo phakathi nokuboshwa. INkantolo yaqaphela ukuthi omakhalekhukhwini banamuhla banokwaziswa okuningi okuyimfihlo — ama-imeyili, izithombe, abangathintwa, imininingwane yendawo — okungaphezulu kakhulu kwalokho ukuphenywa komuntu okungokoqobo okungase kwembule. I-Riley iyisici esibonakalayo semfihlo sendlela yokuthungasi yobuchwepheshe futhi igcizelela isidingo seSichimbiso sesine sokuzinzelo sezelo sezobuchwepheshe ukuze sishintshe.

Carbate v. United States (208)

Muva nje, Inkantolo inqume ukuthi iqoqo likahulumeni lokwaziswa okungokomlando ngendawo ebekwe kuyo amangqamuzana (CSLI) elivela kumshini othwala ucingo womuntu liyindlela yokuhlola ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo sesine. INkantolo isekela ukuthi abantu balindele ukuba izinto zabo zemfihleko ngokunengqondo embhalweni wezokuhamba kwabo okungokomzimba njengoba kulandelwa izingcingo zabo. Lesinqumo salinganisela ikhono likahulumeni lokuthola izinyanga zemininingwane yendawo ngaphandle kwesizathu esisekelwe ekuboneleni okulindelekile.

Indaba eningiliziwe ifushaniswe, vakashela Oyez, umsebenzi womthetho okhululekile weCornell’s Legal Information Institute.

ISichibiyelo Sesine Ezikoleni: Amalungelo Nemingcele

Abafundi abawachithi amalungelo abo eSichibiyelo sesine esangweni lesikole, kodwa lawomalungelo ashintshwa yindawo ehlukile yezikole zomphakathi. Njenge-New Jersey v. T.L.O. abaphathi besikole bangahlola abafundi abasekelwe ekusoleni okunengqondo, hhayi imbangela elindelekile. Nokho, ukuphenya kumelwe kuthethelelwe ekuqaleni kwayo futhi kube nokulinganisela. Ngokwesibonelo, ukufuna i-iPhonone elahlekile kungathethelelwa uma umfundi ebonakala efihla, kodwa ukuseshwa okungaqondakaliyo okungaqondakali kahle ngokunokwenzeka kungaba okungenangqondo.

Ukuhlolwa Kwezidakamizwa Nokulondeka Kwesikole

Ku iBoard of Education v. Earls (2002), iNkantolo yasekela ukuhlolwa kwezidakamizwa okungahleliwe kwabafundi abahlanganyela emisebenzini yangemva kwesikole, ibhekisela esithakazelweni sesikole sokuvimbela ukusetshenziswa kwezidakamizwa. Izinkantolo ezingaphansi ziye zandisa lokhu kuhlola okungasolekiyo, njengokuhlola nokuhlola kwensimbi, uma nje bengangeneli ngokweqile. Abafundi kufanele baqaphele ukuthi nakuba benamalungelo ezindaba zomuntu siqu, izikhulu zesikole zinebala elikhulu lokugcina ukuphepha.

Ukucwaningwa Kwezisetshenziswa Zabafundi Ngezinombolo

Ukuphakama kocingo olulula nezingcingo ezikoleni kuye kwadala imibuzo emisha. Izinkantolo zisebenzise i-T.L.O. uhlelo lokuhlola izingcingo zabafundi nocingo oluphothiwe, kodwa ngemingcele ethile. Ukuvumelana okukhulayo kusekela ukuthi izikhulu zesikole zingase zifune isisetshenziswa kuphela uma zinobufakazi obuqondile, obungakhomba ukukholelwa ukuthi siqukethe ubufakazi bokwephula umthetho, futhi ukuseshwa kumelwe kulinganiselwe emninimeni ethintanayo. Abafundi kufanele bafundiswe ngamalungelo abo nangokubaluleka kwesivikelo ne-fidiodio.

Izinselele Zanamuhla: Ubuchwepheshe, Imali Eningi Nesikhathi Sokuba Wedwa

ISichibiyelo sesine sibhekene nezinselele ezingakaze zibonwe ngekhulu lama-21. Izinhlelo zikahulumeni zokuhlola, njengalezo ezambulwa u-Edward Snowden, zihlanganisa iqoqo le-metameter, amarekhodi ocingo, nezokuxhumana nge-inthanethi. Izinkantolo ziye zazama ukusebenzisa izimiso zekhulu le-18 kubuchwepheshe obufana ne-drones, i-GPS, izinqondi zobuso, ukuqaphela ubuso, kanye ne-Aip ekwazi ukubikezela i-PIP.

Ku United States v. Jones (202), iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi ukunamathisela umthumeli weGPS emotweni nokuhlola amasonto ayo kwakwenza ukuphenya ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo sesine. Ukucabanga kweNkantolo kwancike ekuphambukeni okungokoqobo — ukunamathela kwethuluzi — kodwa amajaji amahlanu asayina nombono ovumelanayo osikisela ukuthi ukuqapha isikhathi eside ngisho nangaphandle kwecala kungaphazamisa izimfuneko ezinengqondo zemfihlo.

Enye impikiswano ephumayo yimfundiso yesithathu-ngxenye. Ngokwesiko, iNkantolo ikholelwa ukuthi ukwaziswa okuhlanganyelwe ngokuzithandela namalungu amathathu — njengerekhodi lamabhange noma izinombolo zocingo ezibizwayo — akuvikelekile. Nokho, [ i-Calter [ ilinganiselwe leyo mfundiso yemininingwane yendawo yengqamuzana, futhi amacala azayo angaqhubeka ukuyisusa. Imithetho enjengeziphakamiso zenguquko zezeluleko. [[FLT:]]

Ngezihloko zeSichibiyelo sesine zenkathi yenombolo, i-Electronic Frontial Foundation inikeza imithombo emikhulu eyimfihlo [.

Ukufuna Abafundi Nabafundisi

Ukuqonda iSichibiyelo sesine akuyona nje indlela yokufunda, kuhlomisela abafundi ukuba baqaphele futhi baqinise amalungelo abo, futhi kusiza othisha ukuba bakhe indawo yokufunda ehloniphe ukuphepha nokungafihli. Izikole zingahlanganisa imfundo yeSichibiyelo Sesine ezifundweni zomphakathi, zomlando ngisho nasemikhakheni yobuchwepheshe.

Amaphuzu Okufundisa Awusizo

  • Indlela efanelekile: abafundi bafunde futhi baphikisane ngemibono yeNkantolo Ephakeme. Ngokwesibonelo, qhathanisa ukucabanga T.L.O. ne[[FLT:] ukuhlola indlela ezobuchwepheshe ezishintsha ngayo izimfuneko zemfihlo.
  • Izifundo ezikhona manje eziveza izimo ezingokoqobo zokufuna — iphoyisa limisa imoto, uthisha omkhulu ohlola isikhwama sokuvoca — futhi licele ukuba liphikisane ukuthi ukuphenya kuwumthetho-mthetho-sisekelo yini ngaphansi komthetho wamanje.
  • Izimpikiswano zeNkantolo Ephakeme: Yabela izindima (impinda, iphicolo, izahlulelo) futhi iphatha ikhambi lokugcona ephucukweni noma ngokoqobo. Lokhu kuthuthukisa ukucabanga okugxekayo namakhono okukhuluma obala.
  • C Izehlo zamanje Ukuhlolwa: Xoxa izindaba zezindaba eziphathelene nokuqapha, ukusebenzisa i-drone, noma amakhamera endikimba yamaphoyisa. Khuthaza abafundi ukuba bahlaziye indlela izimiso zeSichibiyelo sesine ezisebenza ngayo ezimpikiswaneni zamanje.
  • Abashicileli abakhulumi abaphezulu:[ Mema ummeli, umahluleli, noma inkululeko yomphakathi ukuba akhulume ngezinhlelo zangempela zezwe zokusesha nomthetho wokuthumba.

Ukunika Abafundi Amandla

Abafundi kufanele bazi ukuthi banelungelo lokuthula futhi benqabe ukuseshwa, ngisho nasesikoleni (izikhulu zesikole zingase ziqhubeke zihlola ngokusola okunengqondo). Kufanele futhi baqonde ukuthi iSichibiyelo Sesine sivikela ekuphenyeni okungenangqondo kukahulumeni, hhayi ngabantu ngabanye. Ukufundisa lokhu kuhlukanisa kusiza abafundi ukuba babhekane nokuphoqelela umthetho neziphathimandla zesikole.

Isiphetho

ISichibiyelo sesine siyisivikelo esibalulekile ekuphazanyisweni uhulumeni ozimele. Izimiso zaso eziyisisekelo — okungenzeka ziyimbangela, izimvume, nokucabangela — ziyaqhubeka ziqondisa ukuqondisa ukwahlulela kwaseMelika, njengoba ubuchwepheshe obusha bubekela inselele ukusebenza kwabo. Kubafundi nabafundisi, ukuqonda iSichibiyelo sesine kubalulekile ekuhlanganyeleni ekuphileni kwentando yeningi. Ngokufunda umlando waso, izimfundiso eziyinhloko, nokuziphendukela kwemvelo kwanamuhla, singakwazisa kangcono ukulinganisela okubucayi phakathi kwenkululeko nokulondeka abaFramers abafuna ukukuvikela.

Ekugcineni, iSichibiyelo Sesine asiyona into eyisidala ehlala ikhona; siyincwadi ephilayo efuna ukuba ichazwe kabusha njalo uma kucatshangelwa izimo ezishintshayo.