Isingeniso: Ithonya Elikhulayo Lokucabanga Ngemvelaphi Yokuqala Emthetho Ongahlanga

Ukucabanga kokuqala kuye kwaba yisici esiyinhloko sencazelo yomthetho-sisekelo waseMelika, ikakhulukazi ezinkingeni ezingokomthetho eziphakamayo esizweni nasemphakathini. Uma izinkantolo zihlola ukuthi umthetho wedolobha, umthetho wesifunda, noma umthetho wezwe ukuziphatha nomthetho womthetho we-U.S., ngokuqhubekayo zibheka encazelweni yokuqala yomphakathi noma injongo yabalawuli bazo. Lokhu kushintsha kwendlela yokusebenza kunemiphumela ejulile yezindaba ezisukela ezibhabheleni zokuvota izinqubo, nakwiimpikiswano zokukhuluma eziya ezimpikiswaneni phakathi kombuso nombuso. Ukuqonda indlela umthetho wokuqala osebenza ngayo kule mongongo kubalulekile kubalungisi bemithetho, abameli, nezakhamuzi eziqondisa indawo eyinkimbinkimbi yezwe nomthetho wendawo.

Ukubaluleka komthetho womthetho akuyona incazelo eqinile kodwa umndeni ozichazayo. Ngaphakathi, isekela ukuthi umbhalo womthetho-sisekelo unencazelo ecacile − incazelo yokuthi abantu abanolwazi olunengqondo bebeyoqonda ngesikhathi sokuhlanganisa. Ngokumisa izinqumo zokwahlulela kulencazelo eqinile, abaxhasi baphikisa ukuthi ukuqala kuvimbela ukwahlulela futhi kulondoloza ukwahlulela kobukhonya bentando yeningi. Nokho, abagxeki, baphikisa ukuthi ungavala izindinganiso eziphelelwe isikhathi futhi ungazinaki izindinganiso eziyisisekelo ze-socine. Noma kunjalo, lemfundiso ithole ukubekwa kwezehlulelo ezingeni ezisezingeni eliphezulu ku-U.S. Inkantolo ephakeme nezinkantolo eziphansi, ikakhulukazi kusukela ekumisweni kwe-Digencistriance Scial, i-Gillectrick Goriant, i-Bareavey, no-Barney Consey.

Lesi sihloko sindisa imiqondo eyisisekelo yokucabanga kokuqala njengokusebenza ezinseleleni zomthetho ezingokomthetho wezwe nezohulumeni wendawo. Ihlola izimpande ezingokomlando zenkathi yokuqala, izinqumo eziyinhloko zeNkantolo Ephakeme eziye zaguqula kabusha umthetho wesizwe, indima ekhulayo yokuqala ekuchazeni umthetho-sisekelo wezwe, ithonya eliwusizo ezindaweni ezinkulu zomthetho-sisekelo, kanye nezimpikiswano eziqhubekayo ezihlobene nalendlela yokuchaza. Ekugcineni, abafundi bayoba nokwazisa okujulile ngendlela inqubo yokuqala esetshenziswa ngayo nsuku zonke nelungelo labantu ngabanye emiphakathini yabo.

Isisekelo Sokucabanga Kwakuqala

Umsuka Womlando Nokushintsha Kwemibhalo

Ifilosofi yokwahlukanisa yavela njengefilosofi yokwahlulela evumelanayo ngasekupheleni kwekhulu lamashumi amabili leminyaka, ngokuyinhloko njengokusabela ngokumelene nalokho abasekeli bayo abakubheka njengencazelo yokwahlulela evunayo. Phakathi nenkathi yeWarren neBurger Court, iNkantolo Ephakeme yakhipha izinqumo eziphawulayo ezindaweni ezinjengokudebesela isikole, inqubo yobugebengu, namalungelo okukhipha isisu, ngokuvamile kuncike “uMthetho-sisekelo ophilayo” ovumela incazelo yencwadi ukuba iguquleke. Abagxeki abanjengo-Attney Nenerney General Edwien Meese III noJastice Scalia baphikisa ukuthi lendlela yanikeza abahluleli amandla amakhulu kakhulu okubeka inqubo yabo siqu. Enkulumweni esidumile ngo-1986, i-Meese wabizwa ngokuthi“ inhloso yenhloso yasekuqaleni, ” esikhundleni senhloso yomthetho wasobala, esikhundleni senhloso ye-rayccule.

Lomehluko phakathi kwenhloso yokuqala nencazelo yomphakathi ubalulekile. Inhloso yokuqala igxile kulokho abafemi abakukholelwayo noma abanethemba lokuthi uMthetho-sisekelo uzokufeza. Ngokungafani, incazelo yasobala, ibuza ukuthi umuntu onengqondo ngalesosikhathi wayeyowaqonda kanjani amagama. Owokugcina manje uluhlobo olukhona lwe-listism eNkantolo Ephakeme, njengoba ikhululwe kahle ezimweni ezinjengo [Priverce of Columbia v. [2008] [2008] kanye [[FLT:] [McDonald v]. City of Chicagot[FLT] 2016]. Lezi zinqunyulo zaveza ngokucacile ukuqonda kokuqala kweSiphetho sokuviceka sesibili ukuvimbela ukuvika kwe-Gawula i-Globalbon eGene eGloba eGawulayolini le-Gaket, i-Gastboopt.

IMicikilisho Ewubuhlakani: Kungani Kudingeka Ukukholelwa Kuhulumeni Nomthetho Wendawo?

I-practalism ivame ukuxoxwa emongweni womthetho-mthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni, kodwa ithonya layo kohulumeni bendawo libaluleke ngokufanayo. Izwe nomasipala asebenza ngaphansi kwakho kokubili uMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. nomthetho - sisekelo wawo. Uma umthetho wendawo ubekeka inselele njengokwephula umthetho we-U.S., inkantolo esebenzisa ukuqondiswa komthetho ngokomthetho wesisekelo wezwe ibuza ukuthi isenzo esiphikiswayo singena encaze incazelo yokuqala yelungiselelo elibalulekile. Ngokwesibonelo, uma idolobha liphoqa imfuneko yokuthula izakhiwo zomphakathi, inkantolo ingahlola ukuthi ukuqonda kokuqala kwelungelo leSichibiyelo sokuthula imvume yokuhlanganisa izigwebo ezikhona ngaphambi kokuba kuvele. Ngokufanayo, uma isifunda senkantolo sivimbela ukukhishwa kwesisu ngemva kwamasonto ayisihlanu, isigaba sokuqala sezimiso ze-Clauslaus, ingahlola ukuthi i-Clausdias Prignontston i-"[10] impela iNkathi: [Doft] iNkamestrust [evet]] iNkame]

I-pritaryism futhi iveza izimpikiswano ze-socialism. ISichibiyelo seshumi, esinamagunya agciniwe angaphathiswanga i-United States ezindaweni noma abantu, ngokuvamile sichazwa nge-lens yokuqala. Ezimweni ezinjenge Printz v. United States [1997] [FLT] [i-Murphy] v. National Collegiate Athletic Association (2017), iNkantolo ephakeme yathembela ekuzinzeni okungokomlando nasekuqondeni kwamandla okuqala kahulumeni ukushaya imiyalo kahulumeni eyayifuna ukuqondisa izikhulu zikahulumeni. Lezinqumo zithinta ngokuqondile ukuthi isimo nezindawo zezindawo zingazilawula kanjani ngokuqondile izikhali zemidlalo.

Izinqumo Eziyinhloko Zenkantolo Ephakeme Zephula Umthetho Kahulumeni Wendawo

ISichibiyelo Sesibili: Ukusuka EHeller Kuya Ekulumbeni

Isibonelo esivelele kakhulu sokucabanga kokuqala nokubheka isimo somthetho wendawo kuwumkhondo wezehlakalo zesibili zeSichibiyelo. Ku-[FLT] Diver of Columbia v. Helter, iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi iSichibiyelo sesibili sivikela ilungelo lomuntu lokuzigcina nokuphatha izikhali zakhe siqu, ngokusekelwe kuyincazelo yakuqala yombhalo. Umbono kaCalcia uhlola imithombo yomlando kusukela enkathini yokusungulwa kwenkathi yokusetshenziswa kwenkathi, ukuze uphethe ukuthi ilungelo lokulunga alingenamkhawulo kodwa linwebe liphinde likwazi ukuphatha izikhali ngendlela efanayo. [eminyaka emibili kamuva,[FLT:] [FDonand] v. City of Chicago [FLT] [FLT] [FLD] [F] [3] ephethe i-Genencenced Klegiststingsting, i-Expressymentsssment, i-Exmart offactivesment, i-oldentiveratives of pro

Ku iNew York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen [202], iNkantolo yandisa ngokuphawulekayo isakhiwo sakuqala. Yathi umthetho waseNew York ofuna izicelo zemvume yokufaka imvume yokufaka i-rekhodi elifihlekile lokubonisa “isizathu esiqondile”. INkantolo yakhuluma uvivinyo olusha: lapho iSimemezelo Sesibili seSimemezelo sihlanganisa ukuziphatha komuntu, uhulumeni kumelwe ubonise ukuthi umthetho uhambisana nesiko elingokomlando lokulawula izibhamu. Lokhu “ukuhlola nesiko” kuye kwaphoqa imvume nemithetho yendawo ukuba idwebe izibalo zangokomlando lapho kuvinjelwa imithetho yezelelwa. [FLT] [FFF] [FFF], izikhali zezikhali zesifunda sesifunda sesifunda sezezwe sezezwe, imingcele yemithetho eqinile yemithetho engokomlando esukela ekubeni inqanyuselwe imingcele yezikhathi ezithile, imvume yezikhathi zezikhathi zezikhathi zezikhathi zezikhathi zezikhathi zezikhathi zezikhathi zezikhathi zezikhathi zezikhathi zezikhathi ze

ISichibiyelo Sokuqala: Inkulumo, Umhlangano Nenkolo

Ukucabanga kokuqala kuthonya izimpikiswano zeSichibiyelo ezithinta ohulumeni bendawo. Ethafeni likaGilbert (2015), iNkantolo Ephakeme yashaya umthetho wezimpawu zedolobha owawubeka imingcele ehlukene esekelwe kwizimpawu ezikhona. Umbono kaClarence Thomas wancika ekuqondeni kwasekuqaleni kweSichibiyelo senkululeko sokukhuluma sika Claus, igcizelela ukuthi imithetho esekelwe kuso ayivumelani nemithetho esemthethweni. Lesinqumo siye saba nemiphumela eqondile ekwakheni izimpawu nemithetho yendawo enqamula izwe, siphoqeqeshe uClast Thomas ukuba ahlaziye imithetho yabo noma iSichime.

Endaweni yenkululeko engokwenkolo, ubuKhomanisi benkolo babungenakusetshenziswa kuhulumeni ngoba iSifundazwe seNkantolo sidlule amandla aso eSiphendulo se-Boerne v. Flores (1997), lapho sasithi i-Religious Freedom Resolution Act (RFRA) asinakusetshenziswa khona kuhulumeni ngoba iSikolo seSizwe ngenxa yokuthi iSishaya umthetho weSiqephu saso se-14. Umbono weNkakhulu, owabhalwa nguMahluleli u-Anthony Kennedy, wacabangela incazelo yokuqala yemvume yamandla nobukhulu bamandla kahulumeni. Muva nje, [[FLT.2] ISikole sezenteko yeze-Breton ngaphansi kweSiphetho [FLT] [FLT] [FLT] [253], iNkathi yeNkathi yeNkathi yezelele, isikhulu sesikole sasobala, icabangela sesikole sezezezezezezenteko yezentengo esikhulu, isikhulu, isikhulu seze isikhulu seze

Ukuphana Ngamalungelo Nokuphatha Kwama - compacter

UbuQulu buye balandelana kakhulu emacaleni okuvota. Ku-Shelby County v. Hoder (2013), iNkantolo Ephakeme yakhipha uhlelo lokuhlanganisa lwe-Voting Rights Act ka-65, eyafuna amazwe athile nezindawo ezinomlando wobandlululo ukuze kutholakale imingcele yangaphambili ngaphambi kokushintsha imithetho yokuvota. UMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Roberts wasebenzisa indlela yokuqala ezindululweni zenkulungwane neshumi elinesihlanu, waphetha ngokuthi lolu hlelo lwalusekelwe emashumini eminyaka adlule amashumini eminyaka futhi lwaphula izimiso zombuso olinganayo. Isinqumo sakhulula izifundazwe eziyisishiya uhulumeni eziyisishiya umthetho wokuvota ngaphandle kokuzi, ukuhola kwemithetho emisha yokuvota, ukuhlanganisa, ukuhlanganisa izigwebo, ukuhlanganisa nokuguqula imithetho emisha, ukuhlanganisa nokushintsha imithetho emishana, kusukela ekusebenziseni kwemithetho emisha kakhulu ukuveza ukuvota, ukuveza ukucwa kobuhlanga.

Brnovich v. iKomiti yesizwe yeDemocratic (2021]), iNkantolo yasekela imingcele yokuvota e-Arizona emelene nenselele ngaphansi kweSiqeshi 2 soMthetho Welungelo. Umbono kaSamuel Alito wancika kakhulu ekusebenzeni komlando nasekuqondeni kwasekuqaleni kweSichibiyelo seshumi elinesihlanu ukunquma ukuthi yini ehlanganisa umthetho wokuvota. Isinqumo siye saqinisa amazwe ukuba abeke imithetho eqinile yokuvota, kuhlanganise nemithetho evimbela ukuvota futhi angayitholi.

Uhulumeni: Imingcele Yamandla Esizwe

Ukucabanga koqobo nakho kuye kwaba balulekile ekuchazeni imingcele phakathi kwesifundazwe negunya likahulumeni. Ukushintshwa kwe-United States (1997), iNkantolo yawaphula amalungiselelo eBrady Handgun Violence Prevention Act adinga ukuba isifundazwe nezikhulu zomthetho ziqondise isizinda. Umbono kaScintalia ubukeze umlando ukuze kuboniswe ukuthi uhulumeni wezwe awukaze ukwazi ukuyala izikhulu zikahulumeni ukuba zinikeze izinhlelo zikahulumeni. Emashumini amabili eminyaka kamuva, uMurphy v. National Collegiate Athtic Association [FLT:] [208], iNkantolo yahlasela i-Provin and Admistrust Active Active Active Active Activesssss, evinicet ishoved mthetho owedelwe yi-Stems. “Inkantolo efuna ukuqam.

Lezi zinqumo zinemiphumela ephawulekayo. Uhulumeni nohulumeni bendawo manje banenkululeko enkulu yokubhalisa ngokusemthethweni ukubheja ezemidlalo, ukusungula amasu okulawula, nokusebenzisa izimiso zendawo ezungezile ngaphandle kokuphazamisa kukahulumeni. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, lapho uhulumeni uzama ukubeka izimo ezinikezwa uhulumeni, izinqumo ziye zaphikisa ngokuphumelelayo `kancane-kancane-kakhulu] ukuthi izimo ezinjalo ziphula izimiso zobuzwe zakuqala, njengaku National Federation of Independent Businesssion v. Sebelius

Ukuqamba Kwakuqala Ekuchazeni Umthetho - sisekelo KaHulumeni

Izinkantolo ZoMbuso Njengezinkonzo Zokuqamba Amasuka

Nakuba ukunaka okuningi kubhekiselwa eNkantolo ePhakeme yase-U.S., izinkantolo zikahulumeni zikwamukela ngokuqhubekayo ukucabanga kobukhoma bakuqala lapho zichaza imithetho-sisekelo yazo. Imithetho-mthetho eminingi yombuso iqukethe amalungiselelo ahambisana noMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. kodwa enolimi oluhlukile olungaveza imiphumela ehlukene. Ngokwesibonelo, eminye imithetho yesizwe inezivikelo ezibanzi zelungelo lokuphatha izikhali, inkululeko yokukhuluma, noma ukuphenya okungacabangeli. Izinkantolo zikahulumeni ezisebenzisa ukusungula zibheka incazelo engokomlando yezincwadi zombuso wazo zokusungula, ezingaholela ekunqumeni ukuthi ukwandisa noma ukulinganisela amalungelo ombuso ngalé kwesiqinisekiso sombuso.

EFlorida, inkantolo ephakeme yezwe iye yasebenzisa ukucabanga kokuqala ezicabeni ezihilela ukukhishwa komthetho-mshoshaphansi we-Florida. Kuyi-Waters v. State [1988], inkantolo yathi ilungiselelo lemithetho-mthethwe-mthethweni livikela abantu ekuqaleni ekwakhiweni kwabantu ngecala emalini yabo egciniwe. Muva nje, iNkantolo ephakeme yaseTexas of Criminalvin Applers isebenzisa izimiso zakuqala ukuchaza ilungelo leTexas Constitution lokuphatha izikhali, iphetha ngokuthi ivikela ilungelo lokuphatha izibhamu ezinswenisweni zomphakathi. [vFogrome] ngaphansi komthetho ovamile]

Inhlangano Entsha Yokwahlulela Nokuqamba Amanga

“ I-New Judicial Federalism,” eyathola amandla ngawo-1970, yakhuthaza izinkantolo zikahulumeni ukuba zithembele kumthetho-sisekelo wazo siqu ukuze zinikeze amalungelo angaphezu kwalawo aqinisekiswe yi-U.S. Constitution. Umthetho woqobo ufaka ungqimba oluthengiswe. Uma inkantolo yezwe inquma ukuthi ingawuchaza umthetho-mthetho wayo ngokuzimele, kumelwe icabangele incazelo yokuqala yencwadi esungulwe umbuso. Inkantolo yaseCalifornia ivumele ukuphenya isenzakalo seNkantolo e kubantu ababhekene nomthetho-. Bristinine[[12] [18] ikholelwa ukuthi ukuphenywa komthetho kahulumeni nokuthathwa kwelungiselelo lomphakathi kudinga imvume yokuhlola imoto, nakuba umthetho wezwelonke ukuvumela ukuthunga. Ukucabanga kwenkantolo ekhuluma ngezingxoxo zemithetho engu-18949 ze-Folths owasethi izigwebo eziqonde izikhulu zeze izinkantolo.

Ithonya Eliwusizo Ekudalweni Kwezindawo

Umthetho - sisekelo wezwe uthinta ngokuqondile ohulumeni bendawo. Uma umthetho kamasipala ubekelwe inselele ngaphansi komthetho-sisekelo wezwe, umphumela ungaxhomeke endleleni inkantolo ephakeme echaza ngayo incazelo yokuqala. Ngokwesibonelo, ngemva kokuba iNkantolo ePhakeme kakhulu yase-U.S. isekele umthetho wezezimali wendawo ] i-Citazins United. FEC, amazwe amaningana acabangela imingcele yawo siqu ezinhlawulweni ezizimele. EMontana, inkantolo ephakeme yangowase-2012 eqaleni yasekela izimali zenkampani ezizimele, ithembele ezicikweni lokuqala le-Montalmental Constitution, eyayinenkani yesiko eqinile emelene nezentengo. Nokho, iNkantolo ephakeme yamacala aguqula isinqumo sayo ngaphandle kwempikiswano.[Foctive [Flaten] [5]

Umphumela Ongokoqobo Ezinkingeni Ezingokomthetho: Izibonelo Zezwe Langempela

Ukulawula Izibhamu Ngemva Kokuphathwa Ngezihluku

Indawo esheshayo engemva kwe- Bruen i-operatorium yengqondo yokuqala. Amadolobha namabala afaka izilinganiso eziqinile zokulawula izibhamu (njenge-New York City, San Francisco, Los Angeles, ne Chicago, manje abhekene nokumangalelwa okuningi okuphikisa imithetho yawo. Njengesibonelo, inkantolo yesifunda sesifunda saseCalifornia yaqeda ukuvinjelwa kwezwe ezindaweni “ezivamile zezikhathi zesikhathi zikaSquare nezindawo zokuhlala ezibanzi. Manje i-FLTramston kunyushela abantu abadala ngaphansi kwama-21, [[FLT]] Bruen ] ukuvivinywa komlando. Enye inkantolo yanquma ukuthi ukuvinjelwa kwezibhamu zamazwe e-Australia kuvinjelwe“'izindawo ezibanzi ze-Squareat . ” Impikiswano emishane yezesime emisha ihlelwe yize ngokomthetho emisha ezindaweni zokuqala, futhi i-Melikane.

Imithetho Elandela Ama - dob

Isinqumo sasingu-Dobs , egumbuqele Roe v. [ ne[FLT]] i-Parentary v. i-Casey[[FLT]], yayingu-ascritical as productionrist. [u-Act:], [u-Alto], [umthetho] owasewuyi-amandla owenakekeliyo elawulayo. [umthetho] u-Altoimpela u-Anto] ukholelwa ukuthi ilungelo lokukhipha isisu elisekelwe kakhulu emlandweni wezwe nesiko, njengoba kudingekile kudinga ukuvikelwa kwemithetho esemthethweni engokomthetho mayelana nezimiso ze-Rekhodiumssion Resiglyton (Inslation) ezindaweni zokuqala zokuqala zokuqala zokuqala, ivikela imvume yenguquko sokuqala sokuqala sokuqala sokuqala somthetho wokuqala, isithi isithi i-Empini ehlelwe ngokweziseke, ngokwezinye i-Esaqalayonsi,

Ukusekela Imali Nobuqotho

Ukucabanga kwakuqala futhi kuphakamisa izinselele emithethweni yezezimali yendawo. ICitazins United, iNkantolo Ephakeme yasebenzisa ukuzimisela ukuphetha ukuthi izindleko zenkampani zivikelwe ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo Sokuqala. Lesi sinqumo siye sasetshenziswa ekushayeni isifundazwe nemithetho yendawo elinganisela ukusetshenziswa kwemali okuzimele, njengeMithetho Engcolileyo kaMontana. Muva nje, isinqumo seNkanto embonini sivikelwe Thompson v. Heb[FLD[FL:2] [202]] [202]) siphindeka futhi sisho ukuthi imingcele elinganiselwe ngaphandle kokulunga komlando. Izinkantolo eziphansi manje zisho incazelo yasekuqaleni lapho kuhlelwa imingcele yezwe nemingcele yendawo, ukuhlanganisa izimfuneko, nokusekela kweminikelo.

Imithetho yokukhetha iye yabekelwa inselele futhi ngokusebenzisa izimpikiswano zoqobo. Rucho v. Isizathu Esivamile (2029), iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi inkantolo elawulayo ayifuni ukuqashelwa ngaphansi kwe-U.S. Constitution, ngokwengxenye ngenxa yokuthi ukuqonda kwasekuqaleni kwe-Evolutions Claus [Flaus] wanikeza igunya elibanzi phezu kokuvuleka. Lesinqumo savumela izinkantolo zikahulumeni ukuba ziqhubeke zizwa imibandela enjalo ngaphansi kwemithetho-mthetho-mthetho, iholele ekunqumeni abasekeli abakholelwa ekuziqondiseni kwemithetho yokuqala emazweni anjengePennsylvania, i-North Carolina, ne-Ohio ayigunyazi ukuthatha inqubo yokuqala. [[FLT] V [20], iNkakhulu leNkakhulu leNkakhulu leNkantombabuko eguqula umthetho oqinileyo ebekwe ekuqaleni, ephethe ngomthetho omkhulu.

Imithetho Yendawo Ezungezile Nokusetshenziswa Kwezwe

Ohulumeni bendawo bavame ukubhekana nezinselele zezimiso zendawo ezungezile ezisekelwe ekuthatheni iSichibiyelo sesihlanu, ezifakwe ngokumelene nezifundazwe ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo se 145. Umqondo woqobo uye wathonya indlela yeNkantolo ethatha ngayo izinto ezingokoqobo njengaye Cedar Point Literary v. Hassid[[[FLT:] [201], lapho iNkantolo yasekela khona ukuthi umthetho weCanselthi yaseCalifornia unikeza ukuhlelwa kwemifelandawo ngemithetho yezindawo ezimiswe ngokuthatha indawo ngesilinganiso. ISikhulu uRobert sibheke incazelo yokuqala ye-“ ukuhlasela okungokomzimba, ngisho noma ukuhlasela kwesikhashana, kudinga imbuyiselo. Lesi sinqumo siveza ukukhokhwakhwa kwezindawo zendawo, njengemithetho yezindawo zokuhlola noma amandla. Ngokufana neNkakhulu iNkakhulu u-Foctoryn.[2][3] Izimiso zezwe elinguMkhambiso-ose-sombuluko, uma siqhubeka nezimiso zezwe, uma sithatha wonke umthetho wezwe, ngaphandle kokuba sisekela wonke umthetho

Ukugxekwa Namanga

UMthetho - sisekelo Ophilayo Ungathatha Isabelo

Abagxeki bobuKhomanisi bokuqala baphikisa ngokuthi uMthetho-sisekelo uyincwadi ephilayo okumelwe ivumelane nezimo ezishintshayo. IJaji uWilliam Brennan libizwa ngokudume ngokuthi ubuShunamani “buyi-athom obuthotshiwe njengokuthobeka.” Baphikisa ngokuthi abafaki-flamethi basebenzisa ngamabomu ulimi olubanzi − njengokuthi “inqubo yokuqala” kanye“ nokuvikela okulinganayo”" nenhloso yokuba izizukulwane ezizayo zinikeze okuqukethwe yizimo ezikuyo. Kuwo wonke umongo wezwe nohulumeni wendawo, lokhu kuchaza ukuthi idolobha lidinga ukusingatha izinselele zanamuhla njengokuhlola isayensi yesimo sezulu, ukushintsha isimo sezulu, noma izimo zezempilo zomphakathi ezingasetshenziswa ngokunamathela kakhulu ekunamatheleni ezingenisweni okuqinile. Ngokwesibonelo, ukusebenzisa ukucabanga kokuqala ukuveza imibuzo enzima ngezenhlengakhulelayo ye-th enzinziweyo noma ukuqoqwa kweminye iqoqo yemininingwane eholayo.

Ukuqonda Incazelo Yokuqala

Ukugxeka kwesibili ukuthi incazelo yokuqala ivame ukuqondwa. Izazimlando azivumelani ngalokho isizukulwane sokusungula esikukholelwayo ngempela, futhi umlando awuphelele. IJaji u-Elena Kagan, ngokwesibonelo, liphawule ukuthi ukwenziwa kombhalo wokuqala kungaveza imiphumela ethatha indinganiso noma ekhululekile, kodwa ukusebenza kwayo kuxhomeke ekutheni yimiphi imithombo engokomlando ekhetha ukugcizelela. Bruen [FLT] [irN], iningi nokwehluleka okuthi ngamunye okucatshuliweyo komlando kungasekela imibono yabo esikweni somthetho wesibhamu. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi lokhu kusetshenziswa komlando kuvumela abahluleli ukuba bafinyelele imiphumela yabo abayithandayo nakuba bethi ukwethembeka kwincazelo yokuqala.

Imiphumela Yesayensi Yemvelo Nemizwa

Izingqapheli eziningi ziphikisa ngokuthi ukuguqulela phambili kuyithuluzi lokufinyelela imiphumela engokwezinga eliphambili. Isinqumo [i-Dobs] esiye sagumbula Roe, ne [[FLT]] BRUEN [[[4] isinqumo, [ii-FLT] [iiii] wish'imithetho yesibhamu, esishaya iziqondiso zanamuhla, sikhonjwa kaningi njengezibonelo ze-stristismsthscrecteds ezaveza imiphumela ehambisana nesigaba seRepulbean Partit. Nokho, uqobo lungaveza imiphumela ekhululekile. [kuyi-FLT.FLT:] [FLT] [FFoct:6] v.[Foct7] [ismsmsism:] [20] Justicer], uGorlgratim] u-mous u-odkthelela i-moscricialidiase,

Ikusasa Lokucabanga Kwabantu Besandulela Ezweni Nakuhulumeni Wendawo

Izimo Ezinkantolo Eziphansi

Kunomphakathi obambelele kakhulu eNkantolo Ephakeme, ukucabanga kokuqala kuyadingeka kakhulu ezinkantolo eziphansi lapho zinquma imibuzo yomthetho-sisekelo ethinta umbuso nohulumeni bendawo. “ukuhlola nokufunda” [[FLT]] nokuhlola okujulile] [kusukela [ii] maDobbs [[ afuna ukuba abahluleli bangene emithonjeni engokomlando. Lokhu kuye kwaholela ekuvuleni okungokomlando kwezazi zezindaba zezulu noprofesa bezomthetho, futhi kudinga abameli abavamile nabameli bendawo ukuba babe nolwazi oluphambili ekucwaningeni okungokomlando. Ezinye izinkantolo zikhono zokuhlola ubufakazi obungoko, neNkakhulu ngokwazo ngokwazo ziye zaqaphela ubunzima besikhathi esizayo. Indlela yokuhlola ingenzeka ibone ukucuphenyanisa inqubo yezomlando, mhlawumbe kudinga ukuqondisa okungoko ngokomlando.

Ukuqalwa Kwabantu Basemzimbeni Kahulumeni Nesithunzi SeNkantolo Ephakeme

Izinkantolo zoMbuso zilwa futhi nobuqaba, kodwa zisebenza njengesibonelo seNkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S. lapho inkantolo yezwe ichaza umthetho - sisekelo wayo ngokubanzi kakhulu kunomthetho kahulumeni, iNkantolo Ephakeme ayikwazi ukubukeza lesosinqumo ngaphandle kokuba iphula ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni. Lokhu kusho ukuthi zingaba izimboni zokuchaza isiqalo sokuqala, zizama izindlela ezihlukahlukene zomlando. Ngokwesibonelo, iNkantolo ePhakeme yase-Ohio isebenzise indlela enamandla yokuqonda ilungelo lomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo lesizwe ekulisebenziseni ikhambi, kuyilapho iNkantolo ye-New York ye-A Apply iphidele. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, lezi zinqubo zokuphonsa zingenza indikimba yomthetho wokuqala ethonya noma ehlukanayo eqenjinini lomthetho womthetho wombuso.

Indima Yempikiswano Yomphakathi Neyochwepheshe

Ubufandanda busalokhu buyindaba ephikiswa kakhulu eqenjini elingokomthetho nasebuthweni lomphakathi. Izazi ezivelele njengoRandy Barnett, uWilliam Baude, noSteven Calabresi zivikela ubukhona bemvelo njengokuphela kwendlela engokomthetho yokuchaza umthetho-sisekelo, kuyilapho abagxeki abanjengo-Erwin Chemerinsky noJamal Greene bephikisana ngezindlela ezivumelanayo. Ingxoxo ayikona nje ulwazi olusezifundweni: ihlela indlela isifunda nohulumeni bendawo abahlela ngayo imithetho, indlela abakhiphilishi abazamla izinselele, nendlela abalawula ngayo imithetho yomthetho-mthetho-mthetho. Njengoba amajaji amaningi ethatha indlela yokuqala yokucabanga ngomthetho-mthetho womthetho-mthetho, indawo ye-Generalprince iyaqhubeka i-umgavice. I-mthetho kanye nabameli bamadolobhana abaqonda indlela yokuqala yokuhlela iyakugcinwa ngayo imithetho ebusa.

Isiphetho

Ukusetshenziswa komthetho wokuqala ekucabangeni kwemithetho ebhekene nezinselele zikahulumeni nezohulumeni bendawo kuye kwaba isici esichazayo somthetho waseMelika wesikhathi esisodwa. Kusukela ekulawuleni izibhamu nasekukhipheni isisu kuya ekuvoteni amalungelo nombuso, izinkantolo zibheka kakhulu encazelo engokomlando yemithetho-sisekelo kanye nezinguquko zayo ukuze zinqume ukuthi imigaqo yemithetho yendawo nemithetho kahulumeni. Nakuba i-slistism inikeza isithembiso sokuzinza nokwethembeka ebhukwini lokusungula, iphakamisa imibuzo enzima mayelana nendlela yokusebenzisa izigwebo zeshumi elinesishiyagalombili neshumi elinesihlanu nekhulu ukuqondwa kwezinkinga zayo. Impikiswano ngemithetho yokuqala ayisoze yaphela, kodwa ithonya layo eliqhubekayo lisho ukuthi noma ubani ohilelekile esizweni noma kuhulumeni wendawo, ngokomthetho, noma eyisakhampazandleni yayo. Ngokuqondana, iziqondiso zayo, izigxobo, izigxobo, iziphaniso zayo, iziphaza ezinqunyweni ezingokomthetho, ukuthi izinkantolo zesizwe ziyohlela kanjani ukuthi izigeqeqe ukuthi izivumelwano zesizwe sezizwe ezimphakathi sesizwe sesizwe.

[[Umthetho:0] Imithombo yemfundo ephinda ifundwa:[[Umthetho:1]