Isisekelo Sokuhlakanipha Nokuziphendukela Kwemvelo

Ukuthatha indawo yokuqala njengefilosofi yokwahlulela evumelanayo kwavelela ngasekupheleni kwekhulu lamashumi amabili leminyaka njengokusabela kulokho abasekeli bayo abakubheka njengesenzo sokwahlulela. Lemfundiso isekela ukuthi umbhalo womthetho-sisekelo kufanele uchazwe ngokwencazelo yomphakathi owawunayo lapho ugunyazwa. UMahluleli uAntonin Scalia, iphimbo eliphambili lalendlela, waphikisa ngokuthi ubuShonastism bunqanda amajaji ekubekeleni imithetho yomuntu siqu futhi bulondoloza ukufaneleka ngokwentando yentando yeningi ngokunamathela enqunyweni eyasungulwa abantu ngenqubo yokuzinza.

Indlela yokuqala iphambene "nomthetho-sisekelo ophilayo" indlela, ephikisa ukuthi incazelo yomthetho-sisekelo ishintsha ngokushintsha kwezenhlalo. Abaqondisi bemvelaphi bagomela ngokuthi izinguquko — hhayi ukuchazwa kabusha kokwahlulela — ziyindlela efanele yokuvumelanisa uMthetho-sisekelo nezimo ezintsha. Le ngxenye yefilosofi iba yimiphumela ikakhulukazi uma izinkantolo zibhekene nezindawo zomthetho lapho umthetho-sisekelo uthule noma lapho ukuqonda kwakuqala kubonisa izindinganiso eziphikisanayo nombono wanamuhla wobulungisa.

Amalungelo omdabu amelela enye yezindawo eziyinselele kakhulu emfundisweni yenkolo yokuqala. Umthetho-sisekelo ukhuluma ngamaMelika Omdabu kuphela ngemibandela elinganiselwe: i-Chommerce Claus unikeza u-Claus eMhlanganweni wokulawula ezohwebo "ngezizwe zase-India," kanye nesigaba seSichibiyelo se-14 seSimende sikhipha ngaphandle "AmaMelika angakhokhiswa intela." Lezizikhombo ezinqhliswayo ezincushiwe zishiya imibuzo emikhulu echaza ubukhosi, amalungelo esivumelwano, izwe, kanye nobukhulu bombuso phezu kwezizwe ze-Indial.

Ukwakhiwa Kobubusi Bomdabu Ngomthetho - sisekelo

Kudala ngaphambi kokuba uMthetho-sisekelo uqanjwe, abalawuli bamakoloni baseYurophu baqaphela ukuthi amazwe omdabu azimele angakwazi ukungena ezivumelwaneni. Lokhu kuqashelwa kwaqhubeka ngaphansi kokubusa kwaseBrithani futhi kwazuzwa njengefa yi-United States ngemva kokuzimela. Isivumelwano soMthetho-sisekelo sika-Claus, esigunyaza uMongameli ukwenza izivumelwano neseluleko nemvume yeSigele, sivuma ngokuphelele ukuthi izizwe zamaNdiya zinesimo samazwe angaphandle sokwenza isivumelwano.

Inkantolo ePhakeme kakhulu yasungula lokho izazi zanamuhla ezikubiza ngokuthi "iMarshall Trilogy" — amacala amathathu ayisisekelo anqunywa nguMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall phakathi ko1823 no1832 aqhubeka emisa umthetho wamaNdiya. Johnson v. McInsh, Marshall wachaza "imfundiso efihliweyo," ephethe ukuthi ukusungula kweYurophu kwacima ubunikazi bezwe futhi wabuthatha esikhundleni selungelo lokuhlala ngaphansi kokulawula kwezwe. [[FLT.[FLT:]]] Isizwe se-Cokeroge .[[FLT] [FLT] [FLD:3] [iright] wachaza izizwe ezinobuhlobo bazo obusekelwe ku-United States "unist] i-fleastry'erst [fleast] i-fleactives.[flegartived , njengoba kuvuma ukuthi imibuso yesizwe.[frevotivene.]

Lezi zinqumo zamisa uhlelo olusalokhu lunethonya kakhulu kodwa futhi lwaphikisana kakhulu. Ukuhlolwa kobuzwe kweMarshall Trilomy kwembula ukuthi uMarshall ngokwakhe wasebenzisa izimfundiso zamakoloni aseYurophu kunokuba asebenzise umbhalo womthetho ngokomthetho oqinile — iqiniso elibangela ukuba lukhuni noma yikuphi ukulandisa komthetho wezwe wamaNdiya okusekelwe ekusungulweni kwawo. Imfundiso etholakalayo, ikakhulukazi, iye yagxekwa kabanzi njengenganekwane yobuhlanga eyaye yathethelela ukulahlwa kwezwe.

Ukuzisungulela — Izenzakalo Eziyinhloko ZeNkantolo Ephakeme

Imfundiso Yesivumelwano Yamalungelo Abantu

I-United States yangenela izivumelwano ezingamakhulu ezizweni zesizwe phakathi kuka-1778 no-1871, lapho uMkhandlu uqeda ukwenza isivumelwano. Lezi zivumelwano zazigcine ukuzingela, ukudoba, ukuqoqa, nokuhlala kumalungelo amazwe ayaqhubeka ewaqinisa namuhla. Ukuchazwa kolimi lwesivumelwano koqobo kuye kwaveza imiphumela ehlukene kakhulu kuye ngokwezinkantolo nangomlando okhona.

United States v. Winans, iNkantolo Ephakeme yamisa umthetho wokuthi izivumelwano kumelwe zithathwe njengezaziswa ngokwesizwe zazingaqonda — uhlu lwemithetho yokwakha oluvumelana nezimiso zakuqala ngokuchaza ukuqonda kwabo bobabili amaqembu ngesikhathi sesivumelwano. Lencwadi yesonto iye yaba nesisekelo sokunqoba kwezizwe eziningi, kuhlanganise namacala aqinisekisa amalungelo okudoba ezindawo zePacific Northwest neGreat Lakes.

Nokho, abagxeki bobuKhomanisi bokuqala baveza ukuthi izinkantolo zisebenzisa ngokukhetha izindlela zakuqala ezisetshenziswayo emacaleni amalungelo abantu. Uma umlando uthembisa ukungaqondakali noma lapho uthembisa ukungqubuzana nemithetho kahulumeni elandelayo, izinkantolo zivame ukuthobela isinyathelo samuva sobukhonya kunokuqonda kwasekuqaleni. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme e United States v. Jicarilla Apache sizwe [ iveza lokhu kucindezeleka: iNkantolo ikholelwa ukuthi uhulumeni awukweletanga misebenzi engokomthetho owodwa ezizweni eziphathiswe izivumelwano zesivumelwano sobugqicile nasemthethweni wemithetho emisiwe emakhulwini amaningi eminyaka, icaphuna "ukuqonda okuqala" ukuthembana kwe-kwethembana.

I - Lone Wolf v. i - Hitchcock Nemfundiso Yamandla KaPlenary

Mhlawumbe akukho cala elibonisa ukushukuma kobuNdiya kanye namalungelo omdabu kukhulu kakhulu kune Lolf v. Hitchcock. Lapho, iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi iSishaya - mthetho sinamandla "othathu" ezindabeni zamaNdiya — amandla amakhulu kangangokuba angatholana nakancane izivumelwano zezivumelwano zesizwe ngaphandle kwemvume futhi ngaphandle kokukhokhwa. Icala lihilela i-Medicine Lonce Consticestion of 1867, eyaqinisekisa ukuthi akukho mhlaba owengeziwe owenziwe ngaphandle kokuvunyelwa kwamalungu amathathu esizwe esikhulile. Nokho, izingqungquthela zakhipha umthetho owedwayo nenkombano ezindaweni zesizwe ezingakhokhwazwanga.

Ukuhlaziya koqobo kwe-Lone Wolf kwembula. Akukho lutho embhalweni womthetho-sisekelo olunikeza igunya elingenamkhawulo lesizwe sempahla. Isivumelwano sika-Claus sidinga ukuvunyelwa okucacile kokulungisa izibopho zesivumelwano. Kodwa iNkantolo yakha imfundiso yamandla e-plenary eyawaphula ngokuphumelelayo amalungelo esivumelwano uMthetho-sisekelo owawaqaphela. Lokhu, izazi eziningi ziphikisa ukuthi u-i-i-althram ayisona isiqinisekiso semiphumela evikela abantu abahlala ndawonye — ingenza kalula nje ukuqinisa izakhiwo zamandla ombuso we-prisons.

McGirt v. Oklahoma Nencazelo Yakuqala Yezivumelwano

Isinqumo samashumi amabini anamashumi amabili esizwe simiswe umthetho kahulumeni olandelayo. Umthetho kahulumeni uGorrath'usebenzisa indlela eqinile yokucabanga engokoqobo ekwakheni amalungelo esizwe. Icala labuza ukuthi i-Muscoge (Creek) isigaba sesizwe sashintshwa yini ngomthetho kahulumeni olandelayo. Umthetho kahulumeni uGor "Onker's usebenzise indlela eqinile yokuhlola indalo, uhlola umbhalo wesivumelwano owamisa isakhiwo nemithetho esonakele ngokungemthetho. Ukuthola ukuthi akukho simo esicacile sokwehlukana, iNkantolo yayiphethe ukuthi indawo ihlala ikhona ngenxa yezinjongo zomthetho ezilawula umthetho ngaphansi kwe-Math Crimetic Act.

[[FLT]] I-McGirt ibonisa ukuthi i-strime ingaveza imiphumela evikela ukubusa komphakathi lapho umlando ucacile futhi lapho izinkantolo zisebenzisa ngokunamandla uhlu lwemibhalo egciniwe yokwakhiwa. Isinqumo saphinde saqinisekisa ukuthi izithembiso kumelwe zihlonishwe ngokwencazelo yazo yokuqala — isimiso esivumelana ngokuqinile nezibopho zabaqali. Umbono kaGorfo wagcizelela ukuthi "uhulumeni kahulumeni ophethe wathembisa iSizwe saseCreek isakhiwo esinesabelo esiphelele" nokuthi "akube nambhalo noma umongo wemithetho ehlobene nalemithetho ibonisa ngokucacile ukuthi uMkhandlu weSivumelo ohloselwe ukuphula leso sithembiso."

Kodwa [ ibangele futhi ukugxekwa okukhulu kwezazi zakudala ezingabazayo ukuthi umphumela wesinqumo uvumelana nokuqonda kwasekuqaleni kwamandla kahulumeni ezindabeni zamaNdiya. Abanye baphikisa ngokuthi imfundiso yamandla aqaphelekayo ku Lone Wolf kufanele ukuba ilawule umphumela, ivumele ukutholwa kokungavumelani. Ngakho indaba ibonisa ukuthi u-Equalist, njenganoma iyiphi indlela yokuchaza, ayikhiqizi izimpendulo ezisekelwe ngokwendlela engathi i-octal — idinga abahluleli ukwenza ukukhetha mayelana nemithombo yokuqala yelungelo nokuhlanganisa indlela yokuhlanganisa izintambo zomlando.

Ukulinganiselwa kobufandandala endaweni yamalungelo abomdabu

Ukusetshenziswa kobu qalo ezicini zamalungelo esizwe kuphakamisa izinkinga eziningi eziyisisekelo. Okokuqala, uhlelo lokuqala lomthetho-sisekelo lwaphatha abantu bomdabu njengabangaphandle kumthetho-sisekelo — bengathathwa ekubeni yizakhamuzi, bengabalwanga ngenjongo yokumelelwa, futhi bengaphansi kwegunya likahulumeni elingalawulwa yisiqinisekiso samalungelo omphakathi. Indlela yokuchaza ukuthi amalungelo akhona angokokuqala ayingozi ekubekeni izingozi kanye nezingalingani ezibekwe uMthetho-sisekelo.

Okwesibili, ukuhlangana kobufandamentali kunenkinga lapho umlando wembula incazelo ephikiswayo, ephikisanayo. Abahleli boMthetho-sisekelo babenemibono ehlukene ngobukhosi bomdabu, izibopho zesivumelwano, nemingcele yamandla kahulumeni. Izimpikiswano zokuhlanganisa imibala azinakuvumelana okucacile kulemibuzo. Ngakho abaqondisi-mbono kumelwe bakhethe phakathi kwemithombo engokomlando ngezindlela ezibonisa ngokungenakugwenywa izibopho ezidlula incazelo yokuqala ngokwayo.

Okwesithathu, ukugcizelela kobuStatu incazelo eqinile yombhalo kuhlala ngokungakholeki. Indlela yokuqala evimbelayo ubudlelwano obunamandla besizwe nombuso. Ngokwesibonelo, umthwalo wemfanelo wokuphathiswa, isuka emakhulwini amaningi eminyaka yokwenza isivumelwano, umthetho wemithetho, nezinqumo zokwahlulela zibe yizibopho ezibophayo ezingakholeki ngokugcwele. Indlela yokuqala evimbela lobu buhlobo esikhathini esithile ingahluleka ukunikeza ukuphuhliswa okuqhubekayo kwezimiso ezingokomthetho ezibalulekile embusweni wesizwe.

I-Indian Commerce Claus inikeza umfanekiso owusizo. Ezinye izazi zezokuqala ziphikisa ngokuthi lemisho inikeza iSishaya - mthetho igunya elilinganiselwe kuphela kwezohwebo nezizwe — igunya elingenakuhlanganisa ukuqondisa nokuthemba imithwalo yemfanelo ebanzi uhulumeni kahulumeni manje oyisebenzisayo. Abanye baphikisa ngokuthi isigqebhezana, esifundwayo ngombono womlando namandla esivumelwano, sisekela igunya elikhulu kakhulu lohulumeni. Ukungavumelani kubonisa ukungaqiniseki okukhulu ngokuthi inqubo yokusebenza kwakuqala kufanele isetshenziswe kanjani uma ubufakazi obungokomlando busekela izincazelo eziningi ezinengqondo.

Ukuhlaziywa okubanzi kwalezimpikiswano zejarispurien, i-Office of Trial Justice inikeza imithombo elungiselelwe uMahluleli wendlela yomthetho wamaNdiya wezwe. i-Native American Rights Fund futhi igcina ukuhlaziywa okukhulu komthetho wecala kanye ne-actus ezichaza kuqala incazelo yesizwe engokomthetho.

Imisebenzi Yokuhumusha

Ezinye izindlela zokuchaza ziye zahlongozwa ukusingatha imingcele yobudala emongweni wamalungelo esizwe. Indlela "umthetho-sisekelo ophilayo", egcizelela ukususwa kwezindinganiso zomphakathi nezimo ezishintshayo, iye yasetshenziswa ezinye izinkantolo ukuqaphela ubukhosi besizwe ezindaweni lapho uhlelo lokuqala lomthetho-sisekelo lunganikeza isivikelo esicacile. Abameleli balendlela baphikisa ukuthi ukuchazwa komthetho-sisekelo kufanele kubangele ukungalungi komthetho-mthetho-sisekelo kohlelo lokuqala lwendlela yokuphatha abantu.

Umthetho - sisekelo ovamile uhlanganisa izimiso ezithile eziyisisekelo — kuhlanganise nokuhlonipha izibopho zesivumelwano nokuqaphela ubukhosi besizwe obungokwemvelo — njengemithetho engokomthetho eqala ngesibonelo sokwahlulela kunokuba isho umbhalo omisiwe. Lendlela iye yaba nethonya ezimweni ezihilela ubuhlobo bokwethenjelwa kanye nobukhulu bobuzwe.

"Ubukhonzi obungagwegwesi" bufuna ukubuyisa ezinye izincazelo zakuqala ezacishwa noma zabekwa indiva esazilweni esiyinhloko somthetho-sisekelo. Ezinye izazi ziye zaphikisa ngokuthi incazelo yokuqala yoMthetho-sisekelo, eqondwa kahle, iqaphela ubukhosi besizwe obuqinile futhi ibeka izibopho eziphoqelelwe kuhulumeni kahulumeni ophethe ukuze uvikele amazwe esizwe kanye nohulumeni ngokwakhe. Le ndaba yokubukeza iphikisa umbono wokuthi ubuProstoli buholela ekuphumeleni kokungabi namkhlukume abantu.

Izeluleko zezazi ezijulile zalezimpikiswano ezichazayo, i-Coase-Sandor Institute for Law and Economics ikhiphe amaphephandaba asebenzayo ahlola u-Earth nomthetho wamaNdiya. Ngaphezu kwalokho, i-Federal Register Bureau of Indian Affairs[ inikeza i-moslate commentation areary aptions areant areatry active syst.

Izinkinga Nezimpikiswano Zezimiso Zesikhathi Esizayo

Impikiswano yokuqala inemiphumela eqondile kumalungelo esizwe samanje kanye nesimiso sikahulumeni. Ukwakheka kweNkantolo Ephakeme kuhlanganisa abahluleli abaningana abaye baveza isibopho kumthetho wendalo, kuhlanganise noMahluleli uGormoth, iKavangagh, iBarrett, noThomas. Indlela yeNkantolo ebhekisa phambili kumthetho kahulumeni wamaNdiya izakunquma imiphumela ekubamba imingcele yesizwe, inhlalakahle yabantwana ngaphansi kwe-Indian Child Welfare Act, ukuzingela namalungelo okudoba, kanye nesilinganiso somthetho wesizwe wokuvikela isimilo esuthwini.

Bracken v. Haaland i-ligitation, eyabekela inselele incazelo engokomthetho-sisekelo we-ICWA, yabeka izimpawu zencazelo yokuqala. I-Placttiffs yaphikisa ukuthi i-ICWA igunya eledlula i-Creace Congress ngaphansi kwe-Cormal Claus futhi yaphula izimiso ezilinganayo zokuvikela — izimpikiswano ezisekelwe ekufundweni okuncane kwencazelo yomthetho sisekelo wokuqala. INkantolo Ephakeme yasekela i-ICWA esinqumisweni sokuqala nesokwakha, kodwa icala lembula ukuhlukana okujulileyo phakathi kwamajaji mayelana nendlela izindlela zokuqala zomthetho wamaNdiya okufanele zisebenze ngayo kumthetho womthetho.

Ikusasa lobuKhomanisi bamalungelo omdabu cishe liyoxhomeka endleleni izinkantolo ezixazulula ngayo izibopho zomthetho-sisekelo wokuqala kanye nendikimba yesiqalo eye yavela emakhulwini amabili eminyaka. Ezinye izazi ziphikisa ngokuthi iNkantolo Ephakeme kufanele yamukele "isivumelwano sokwakha isivumelwano" esifuna inhloso ecacile yesivumelwano sesivumelwano sesivumelwano se-brottle — isimiso esivumelana nesibopho sobuProstolist sokucacisa nokuhlonipha ukuqonda kwasekuqaleni kwazo zombili izibo zivumelwano. Ezinye ziphikisa ngokuthi i-Status ifuna ukuba izinkantolo ziqaphele ukuthi incazelo yokuqala yomthetho-Mpathilo-Constitution iye yaguqulwa ngokuyisisekelo yinguquko yesivumelwano sesivumelwano sesivumelwano sesivumelwano se-Cilband nezenzakalo ezilandelayo emthethweni we-India.

Isiphetho

UbuSyndrome buhlala buyisimiso esiphawulekayo kodwa esincintiwe kakhulu sokuchaza amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo abantu abahlala khona. Ukusebenza kwayo kumthetho kazwelonke kwembula kokubili amandla endlela yombhalo, ukuqina komlando, ukuhlonipha incazelo emisiwe — kanye nokulinganiselwa kwayo, ikakhulukazi uma uhlelo lokuqala lomthetho-sisekelo lubekwa ngokuhlukanisa nokuzithoba. Izenzakalo ezihlolwa lapha zibonisa ukuthi ubuShona bakuqala abuvezi imiphumela enqunyiweyo ezimpikiswaneni zamalungelo abantu. Ingasekela ubukhosi besizwe lapho izivumelwano zihlonishwa ngokwencazelo yazo yokuqala, kodwa futhi zingaqinisa izakhiwo zamandla ombuso wamazwe lapho uhlaka lokuqala lwemithetho-mthetho-mthetho lufundwa ukugunyaza ukulawula uhulumeni.

Impikiswano eqhubekayo ngobuOristism namalungelo abomdabu ekugcineni iphakamisa imibuzo ebanzi mayelana nendlela izinkantolo zezomthetho zaseMelika okufanele zibheke ngayo ngokungalungi okuyisisekelo okwaguqula uhlelo lomthetho-sisekelo. Ukuthi u-ronast ingasebenza njengemoto yokuqaphela nokuvikela ubukhosi besizwe — noma ukuthi izoqhubeka isebenza njengempoqo ekuqapheleni okunjalo — ixhomeke ekukhetheni okuqondisweni okwenziwa izinkantolo eminyakeni ezangaphambili. Okusobala ukuthi ukuhlangana kobuStatusm nelungelo kuhlala kuyindawo yempi enkulu engokomthetho, kanye nemiphumela ejulile yezizwe, isimiso sombuso wamaNdiya, nencazelo yobulungisa esingokwesiko esingokomthetho sase-America.