Table of Contents

Umqondo wokulingana uye waphikiswa futhi wavumelana nomthetho waseMelika kusukela ekusungulweni kwesizwe. ISimemezelo se-Intependent se-Intependent sigomela ngokuthi “wonke amadoda adalwe elingana” uhluke kakhulu kulokhu kugqilazwa okusungulwe, ukubuswa kwabantu abahlala kwamanye amazwe, nokukhubazeka okungokomthetho okubekwe kwabesifazane kanye nabanikazi bezwe. Ngaphezu kwamakhulu amabili eminyaka, izimpi ezingokomthetho, izinhlangano zezenhlalo, kanye nokuncishiswa kwemithetho yemithetho kuye kwaqala kancane kancane-kancane (ne) futhi ngokuvamile (8) ukufinyelela leso sithembiso kukhuthakazelelwa kwabantu abahleli phambili. Lesi sihloko sibonisa izenzakalo ezingokomthetho eziye zaguqula ukuqondana kwenani eUnited States, kusukela eRiphabliki yasekuqaleni kuya ezimpini eziphoqelelekile zekhulu leminyaka lamakhulu amabili namashumi amabili nambili.

Imibhalo Eyisisekelo Nemingcele Yayo

Isimemezelo Sokuzibusa Nomthetho - sisekelo

ISimemezelo se-Independence (1776) sasekela isizwe esisha esimisweni somhlaba wonke samalungelo emvelo, kodwa sasingenawo amandla angokomthetho abophekayo. UMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S., wagunyazwa ngo-1788, wasungula icebo likahulumeni elamukela ngokuphelele ubugqila, labala abantu abagqilaziwe njengabantu abathathu abakhululekile ukuze baboniswe futhi bavumele ukuthunyelwa kwabantu abagqilazwe kuze kube ngo-1808. I-Bill of Rights (1791) yavikela inkululeko ekhethekile (indlela yokuvikela, inkolo, kodwa lezi sivikelo ekuqaleni zasebenza kuphela kuhulumeni wombuso wezwe futhi azizange zikhulume ngohlanga noma ngocalucalucalulo lwezitho. Umphumela, umthetho washiya izigaba ezinkulu zabantu ngaphandle kwesivikelo esilinganayo.

Izinselele Zakuqala Nokuphikelela Kwezikhundla Zobushiqela

Ekuqaleni kwekhulu leshumi elinethoba, izigodlo zalondoloza izakhiwo ezifanele ukuvota, zavimbela ngokucacile abesifazane ukuba bathathe isikhundla, futhi zamisa imithetho yezigqila enqabela abantu abamnyama ukuba babe yibo bonke abantu abasemthethweni. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme Dred Scott v. Sandford [1857]) yaqinisa lesisigaba ngokunquma ukuthi abantu bohluko lobuNsundu bangasoze babe i-U.S.

Izinqumo Zokwakha: Inguquko Yomthetho - sisekelo

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nantathu

IMpi Yangaphakathi (1861-1865) yaphela ngokuhlanzwa kweSichibiyelo seshumi nantathu ngo-1865, esaqeda ubugqila nokugqilazwa ngokungemthetho. Nakuba lokhu kwakuyisinyathelo esikhulu, ulimi lwaso lwalunendawo yokukhokha engahlosiwe eyayivumela ubugqila “njengesijeziso sobugebengu,” ilungiselelo kamuva elasetshenziswa ngokuthumba nokuthumba iziboshwa eziningi.

Isichibiyelo Seshumi Nane: Isivikelo Esilinganayo Nenqubo Efanele

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane (1868) sasiyisiqinisekiso sokuqala esicacile sokulingana okungokomthetho kuMthetho-sisekelo. I-Exlumence Protection Claus yavimbela ukunqabela “noma yimuphi umuntu ophakathi kwegunya lakhe isivikelo esifanayo semithetho.” Kodwa ukulungisa kwabasebenzi be-freameth kwaba nemibono elinganiselwe kakhulu yalokho “ukuvikela okulinganayo” okwakusho. ISivumelwano esifanayo esadlula ukuqedwa kokuqedwa kwempi futhi savumela amazwe aseNingizimu ukuba amise amaBlabhuda . [FLT:] Imithetho evimbela amalungelo abantu. INkantolo Ephakeme ngokushesha yanciphisa isilinganiso senkululeko ku- i-Indlu ye-Indlu ye-'unicer [18] [FLT] prof]

Isichibiyelo Seshumi Nanhlanu Nokulwela Ukusakaza Amalungelo

ISichibiyelo seshumi nanhlanu (1870) sanqabela ukucwasana kobuhlanga ekuvoteni, kodwa sakugwema ngokuhlola ukuvota, ukukhokha intela yokuvota, izigaba zokhokho, nobudlova. Isithembiso somthetho-sisekelo sokulingana kokuvota sasiyoqhubeka singaphumeleli cishe iminyaka eyikhulu. Okwamanje, abesifazane bazo zonke izinhlanga babenqatshelwa ngokuphelele, igebe inci engazange ilungiswe yilempi.

Ohlukile Kodwa Olinganayo: Ukukhethwa Kokwahlulela Ngokungalingani

[[IMPUMT] Plessy v. Ferguson nokuvuka kukaJim Crow

Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme ka 1896 [ku- v.[FORGROG]] wasekela ukuhlukaniswa ngokohlanga ngaphansi kwemfundiso “ehlukene kodwa elinganayo”, amazwi agunyaza isimiso sokuthobeka kohlanga kuzo zonke izici zokuphila komphakathi. Emashumini ayisithupha alandelayo, anquma ukunqamula i-Jim Crow futhi kwenye indawo amisa imithetho eyagunyaza ukuhlukaniswa kwezokuhamba, imfundo, izindlu, nezindawo zomphakathi zokuhlala. Phakathi naleso sikhathi, amaMelika oMdabu Obudabu baphoqelelwa ukuba baphoqelelwe ukuba bathobeke ezikoleni ezihlalisayo nase Dawes Act, ezadiba izwe lezizwe. Abesifazane bahlala bekhishwe ezindaweni ezihlukene.

Impi Yesikhathi Eside Yokuzimela Namalungelo Omphakathi

Inselele Yabesifazane NeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nesishiyagalolunye

Inhlangano yabesifazane yokuzimela, eyakheka eMhlanganweni wangaphambili weNgqungquthela iSeneca Falls (1848), yafinyelela ukunqoba okukhulu komthetho-mthetho ngeSichibiyelo Seshumi Eliyisishiyagalolunye ngo-1920, esanqabela ukunqatshelwa kwevoti ngesisekelo sobulili. Nokho ukunqatshelwa kwesivumelwano akuzange kuzenzekele ukuba bonke abesifazane. Abesifazane abamnyama eNingizimu baqhubeka bebhekene nezithiyo ezifanayo nezithiyo ezithiyo zamadoda amnyama (‘owerlationbacco, intela, futhi kwangabekelwa (ukuze kube iSivumelo samaLungelo sango ka-19656). Abesifazane bomdabumeli (namadoda) babenganikezwangamalungelo aphelele nokuvota kuze kube yilapho i-Indianstristries Act ka-192443, futhi ngisho namazwe amaningi eqhubeka ekubanqabeni lokuvota kuze kube sekhulu leminyaka lokuhlola ukuvota.

Izimpikiswano Zomthetho Zakuqala Zamashumi Amabili

I-National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) yasungula icebo elingokomthetho lokubekela inselele ukuhlukaniswa kwezizwe, kusukela ngezenzakalo ezaveza ukungalingani okubonakalayo phakathi kwezindawo ezihlukene. Sweatt v. Painter [1950] [[FLT]] [i-MC]] i-Laurin v. State Regents [1950]), iNkanto ephakeme yaqala ukuqeda imfundiso ehlukeneyo ngokuthola ukuthi i-atting procestion, ispective , iskontivo ehlukile, ukuzuza imfundo engoko. Lezi zinqunyulo eziqondweyo zemfundo engokomlando.

Ikhulu lama - 2150: Inkathi Egayiwe Yancishiswa Ngenxa Yokulingana

Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (11954)

Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo, iNkantolo yavumelana ngokuthi ukuhlukaniswa ngokohlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi kwakuwuphula umthetho weSivikelo sika-Celal Claus. IJaji eSikhulu u-Earl Warren yagcizelela ukuthi izakhiwo zemfundo ezihlukene “zazingalingani neze.” Isinqumo sayekwaphula [ [[FLT]] engenalusizo olutheni emongweni wemfundo futhi saqalisa ishumi leminyaka lokumelana nempi, kuhlanganise“ nokumelana nezezombangazwe” nokuvinjelwa kwezombangazwe. Ukugcinwa kweze kunqanyuke kuze kube umthetho we-Ovinial Rights Act ka-19644] uhulumeni wanika amandla okunsekela imali ezikoleni ezikoleni ezisezingenisiwe.

Umthetho Ka - 1964 Wamalungelo Abantu

Lo mthetho ophawulekayo wawunqabela ukucwaswa okusekelwe ohlazweni, ebala, enkolweni, ebulilini, noma ebuzweni emsebenzini, ezindaweni zomphakathi, nezinhlelo ezixhaswa nguhulumeni. I-VII yalesi senzo yadala i-Uncimed Accounting Opportounty Commission (EOC) futhi yanikeza izisulu zokucwaswa kwemisebenzi imbangela kahulumeni yokuthatha isinyathelo. Ukufakwa kwe- “sex” eSihloni VII kwakuyisenezeko lokugcina, kodwa kamuva kwaba isisekelo semithetho ephawulekayo yokulingana kwesigaba, kuhlanganise neziphakamiso zokuhlukunyezwa ngokobulili nokucwaswa kwabantwana.

Umthetho Ka - 1965 Wokulwela Amalungelo Abantu

Ngemva kokuhlasela okunonya “ngeSonto” kwamacala amasha eSelma, e-Alabama, uKhongolo lwadlula kuMthetho weVoting Rights, owawuvimbela ukuhlolwa kokufunda nokubhala neminye imikhuba yokuvota. Isenzo sasidinga ukumiswa kobuzwe nomlando wobandlululo lobuhlanga ekuvoteni ukuze kutholakale i-preplaced prevernation ngaphambi kokushintsha imithetho yabo yokuvota. Leli lungiselelo lalibalulekile ekukhuliseni ukubhalisa kwabamnyama nokumelelwa eNingizimu. Kamuva iNkantolo Ephakeme yalula indlela yokuvota ekwandulile Shelby County v. Haverer[2013] kodwa umthetho oyinhloko wokukhetha ihlala.

Isinyathelo Sezindlu Esifanele Sango - 1968

Ngemva kokubulawa kukaMartin Luther King Jr., uMthendeleko Wendawo Ehlala Abantu Wenqabela ukucwaswa kwezindlu ezisekelwe ohlakeni, enkolweni, enkolweni, kamuva, ebulilini, ekukhubazekeni, nasekumeni okungokomthetho. Naphezu kwalesi simiso esingokomthetho, ukuhlukaniswa kwabantu kuyaqhubeka ngenxa yokucwaswa okungokomlando, ukukhishwa kwezindawo zomphakathi, nokucwaswa okuqhubekayo.

Ukulingana Kwezinhlanga: Ukusuka Ekutheni Ufanelekeleni Kuya Elungelweni Lokuzala

Isihloko IX Nemfundo Elinganayo

Isihloko se-IX seSichibiyelo semfundo sango 1972 sanqabela ukucwaswa kwezocansi kunoma yisiphi isimiso semfundo esithola imali kahulumeni. Nakuba ekuqaleni sasiqondwa njengesilinganiso sezemidlalo sokungalingani, siye sasetshenziselwa ukulwa nokuhlukunyezwa ngokobulili, ukuhlasela, nobandlululo ezinkonzweni, ezinkundleni zezemfundo. Umthetho uye wasiza ekwandiseni amathuba abesifazane namantombazane emfundweni.

ISichibiyelo Samalungelo Alinganayo Nefa Laso Elingakhohliwe

I-Uncimence Rights Amencial Amendment (ERA), eyayiyoqinisekisa ngokucacile ukulingana kobulili eMthethweni womthetho-sisekelo, ngo-1972, kodwa yawa izifunda ezintathu ngokungalinganiswa ngenkathi yonyaka ka-1982. Ukulungiswa kuye kwavuselelwa eminyakeni yamuva, neNevada, i-Illinois, neVirginia iwugunya layo ngemva kuka-2017, kodwa isimo sayo esingokomthetho siyaqhubeka siphikiswa. Ngaphandle kwesiqinisekiso somthetho, izinkantolo ziyaqhubeka zihlola izigaba ezisekelwe ebulilini ngaphansi kokuhlola okuphakathi---asendilingaqinile kunendingasisetshenziswa ekuhloleni izinhlanga.

Amalungelo Okuzala Nezimo Ezingalawuleki

Roe v. [773]), iNkantolo Ephakeme yaqaphela ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo lokukhipha isisu ngaphansi kwe-Century Procession Claus, ethinta ngokuqondile ukulawula kwabesifazane imizimba yabo nokuphila kwabo. Isinqumo sasiyisibonakaliso sokulingana kwabesilisa, nakuba sasibhekene nezinselele eziqhubekayo zezombangazwe nomthetho. [[FLT:] [FLT]] Dobbs v. Jackson’s Health Organization [FLT:] [2022], iNkantolo yagumbula [[[[FLT:]] futhi yabuyisela umthetho wokukhipha isisu esimweni sokukhipha isisu.

LGBTQ+ Amalungelo Nokwanda Kwesivikelo Esilinganayo

Kusukela ku Izibopho[ kuya ku-[[QUL:2] u-Lawnce

INkantolo Ephakeme yaqala yasekela imithetho ye-sodoma ku- Bowers v. Hardwick (1986), kodwa yashintsha indlela ku LAWREnce v. Texas[ [i-2003], ishaya imithetho enjengokuphulwa kwenkululeko nemfihlo. Lesinqumo sabeka isisekelo sokuqaphela ukuhlangana okukomzuzwayo.

Ukulingana komshado kanye [[QL:0] Obergefell v. Hodges

Uchungechunge olusheshayo lwezinqumo zenkantolo kahulumeni nombuso lwafinyelela umvuthwandaba Obergefell v. Hodges (2015), eyayithi iSichibiyelo seMithetho seshumi nane seSigqizo siqinisekisa imibhangqwana ehlangene-yodwa engokwabelanayo ilungelo lokushada. Isinqumo sancike kukho kokubili i-Sect Procession Claus ne-Ex Protection Clausle, siqinisekisa ukuthi “ilungelo lokushada” iyinkululeko eyisisekelo engenakuncishwa ngenxa yenkambiso yobulili.

Isivikelo Emsebenzini Ngaphansi Kwe - VII Enesihloko

Bostock v. Clayton County [2020], iNkantolo Ephakeme yanquma ukuthi ubandlululo olusekelwe ekuthandekeni kobulili noma isimo sobutransformer lusho ukucwaswa “ngenxa yobulili” ngaphansi kwesihloko VII. Lesi sinqumo sandisa isivikelo semisebenzi kahulumeni ku LGBTQ futhi sabonisa incazelo ebanzi yobandlululo lobulili ezweni lonke.

Imingcele Yangesikhathi Esizayo Yokulingana

Ubulungisa Bobuhlanga Nezinguquko Ezingokomthetho Zesigebengu

I-Black Live Matter, ebangelwa ukubulawa kwe-Trayvon Martin, uMichael Brown, uGeorge Floyd, nabanye abaningi, iye yagxilisa ukunakekela kwesizwe ekuhlukani kwezinhlanga ekubuthweni kwamaphoyisa, ekugwetshweni, nasekuboshweni. I-Fourst Step of 2018 yenza izinguquko ezilinganiselwe zokugwetshwa kukahulumeni, kodwa izimpikiswano zesimiso − kuhlanganise nokugcinwa kwemithetho yezidakamizwa, inqubo yemali yemali, kanye nokuvikeleka okufanelekile kwezikhulu eziphethe izikhulu. . I-Advoccatacy yenguquko, kuhlanganise ne-George Floyd Justice in Policial Act, ihleliwe ku-Congress Act, kuyilapho izimo zeze zifaka umsebenzi wezinguquko.

Ukumemezela Amalungelo Ekhulu Lama - 20 Lokuqala

Ngemva kwesinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme iShelby County saqeda inqubo yokuhlanganisa i-preference, izifundazwe eziningi zanikeza imithetho efuna i-ID eqinile yokuvota, ukunciphisa ukuvota kwasekuqaleni, nokukhipha imishwana yokuvota. Abagxeki baphikisa lezi zinyathelo ngokungenakulinganiswa ukuthi zithinta abantu abanemibala, imiphakathi ye-Invocation, kanye nabavoti abaphansi. I-John Lewis Voting Rights Adment Act, yasungulwa eKhondlelweni, ifuna ukubuyisela nokulungisa inqubo ye-preblication, kodwa ayizange ibekwe.

Ukulingana Kwezomnotho Nomthetho Wokungavumelani

Nakuba isihloko VII nemithetho ehlobene naso ivimbela ukucwasana ngenhloso, “ithonya elihlukanisayo” lithi qhaqhaqha inselele yezimiso ezingathathi hlangothi ebusweni ezilimaza ngokungenakuqhathaniswa amaqembu avikelwe − uma ubheka ukuncitshiswa yizinkantolo. Ukungaguquguquki kuhlala kuyimpikiswano ephikelelayo: ubulili bukhokha igebe, kuyilapho buncipha kancane kancane, bubanzi kakhulu kwabesifazane abanombala. I-Lilly Led Beverneal Pair Act ka-2009 icacisa ukuthi inkokheli ngayinye ekhokhelwayo ibuye ibuye ivule umthetho wemingcele, kodwa abameleli baqhubeke bezama ukuthatha izinyathelo eziqinile njenge-Pacheck Fairnery Hact.

Amalungelo Okuwohloka Nokutholakala Kwawo

AmaMelika anoBukhubazeko Act (ADA) ka-1990 anqabela ukucwaswa kwabantu abakhubazekile emsebenzini, ezindaweni zomphakathi, ekuthuthweni, nasezokuxhumana. Nakuba i-ADA ishintshe izakhiwo zemvelo nezindawo zokulala emsebenzini, kusenezikhala eziphawulekayo, kuhlanganise nemfundo ephelele, nokutholakala kwemishini. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yazichaza ngokuncane izimfuneko ze - ADA, futhi isithiyo eziningi ziyaqhubeka ngenxa yokungaqiniseki.

Ukungalingani Nokweqisa Komthetho Ongawodwa

Umqondo wesazi esingokomthetho wokuhlangana kwe-Kimberlé Crenshaw uqokomisa indlela uhlanga, ubulili, isigaba, nezinye iziqu ezihlangene ngayo ukuze kuvele okuhlangenwe nakho okuyingqayizivele kobandlululo. Umthetho wamanje olwayo uvame ukuphatha i-axis eyodwa noma i-aces noma ubulili noma ukukhubazeka. [1] ukwenza kube nzima kubantu abachaphazelekayo ukuba babhekane nezimo ezikhunjezekile. Ezinye izinkantolo ziqale ukuqaphela “ukuhlukanisa isigaba” kodwa akukho indinganiso engokomthetho ecacile.

Isiphetho: Umsebenzi Ongancishisiwe Wokulingana

Isu lokulingana komthetho waseMelika akuyona inqubo eshelelayo kodwa uchungechunge lokunqoba okuqinile, okulandelwa ukwenqaba, ukuvuselelwa, nemingcele emisha. Kusukela ekuqedweni kobugqila kuya ekuqapheleni umshado olinganayo wezenhlanu, ukwanda kokuvikela okulinganayo kudinga izinhlangano eziqhubekayo zezenhlalo, ukuchazwa komthetho-sisekelo, nezenzo zomthetho. Nokho uhlelo lwemithetho esemthethweni luhlala lungaphelele: i-ERA ayizange yaneliswe, amalungelo okuvota abuye ahlaselwa, futhi inciphe kabusha ingcebo, futhi ihluleka ukuhlukanisa ingcebo, imfundo, nokugcinwa. Ukuqonda lomlando kubaluleke kakhulu kulabo abafuna ukuthuthukisa ukulingana, ngenxa yesithembiso somthetho sokulingana akukaze kube yiyo. Ifuna ukuqashela, ukukhomba, futhi igebe igele phakathi kwegebe ekhona phakathi kwezwe naphakathi kwezwe. Njengoba ukuncintinyelwa kwemithetho yokulingana kwemithetho iyaqhubeka, ukulingana, ukuncikanisa, ukulingana kwemithetho, iyaqhubeka, ukuthatha inguquko, ukulingana, ukufaneleka, nokulunga, ukufaneleka, ukuthatha umthetho,

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe ezicabeni eziyinhloko zomthetho-sisekelo, bheka i-Cornell Legal Information yesivikelo esifanayo [. Ukuhlaziywa okungokomlando kweSichibiyelo se 144th Reformation kutholakala kusuka [ Izinqolobane zezwe [[]. Ingxoxo eqhubekayo yokuvota igcinwa yi-[[FLT] Brenan Center yeJastice .[FLT]]