Isisekelo Sakuqala Samalungelo Omphakathi

Ukulwela amalungelo omphakathi ngokomthetho eUnited States akuzange kuqale ngokumasha kweminyaka yawo-1960. Izimpande zawo zaqala ukufinyelela emuva ezibhalweni zokusungula nezinsuku zakudala zeRepublic. UMthetho-sisekelo, iSimiso samalungelo, neSichibiyelo sokulungisa iNkathi Yomphakathi ngemva kweMpi Yombango samisa uhlelo lwenkululeko nokulingana, kodwa ukuchazwa kwalezo zimiso yiNkantolo Ephakeme kuye kwashintshashintsha intuthuko futhi ngezinye izikhathi kwaqhubekisela phambili isizwe, okwenza isinqumo saso sibe ilebhulo elibucayi lokuqonda inkolelo yokuziphendukela kwemvelo.

Isinqumo Esiwuketshezi UScott (1857)

Zimbalwa izimo emlandweni waseMelika eziye zathukwa noma zabekwa phambili njengaye uDred Scott v. Sandford . UDred Scott, indoda eyisigqila, wayehlala nenkosi yakhe emasimini akhululekile ngaphambi kokubuyela eMissouri, isifunda sezigqila. Walwela inkululeko yakhe, ephikisana ngokuthi indawo yakhe yokuhlala ekhululekile yamenza waba umuntu okhululekile. UJaji omkhulu uRoger Taney, wabhalela iningi, wanikeza umbono obhubhisayo. Inkantolo yayikholelwa ukuthi noma yimuphi umfonsi wase-Afrika, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ugqilaziwe noma ukhululekile, wayengenakubhekwa njengesakhamuzi wase-United States futhi ngenxa yalokho wayengenama enkantolo yombuso. UTaneycell wamemezela ukuthi uHulumendre wayengenagunya ezindaweni zobugqili. [uTurn:] [Fothmest]

UPlessy v. Ferguson (1896)

Ngemva kokuphela kwe-Reconstation, i-Southern Act, izifundazwe zamisa uchungechunge lwemithetho eyaziwa ngokuthi uJim Crow ephoqelela ukuhlukaniswa kohlanga. Ngo-1892, uHomer Plessy, indoda exubene nengalo, wangena ngamabomu imoto yesitimela emhlophe kuphela eLouisiana ukuze aphikise iSixeniana Car Act. Icala lagcina lifike eNkantolo Ephakeme, lapho iNkantolo yasekela khona ubandlululo lwesizwe ngaphansi kwemfundiso yezenkolo ye-[FLC:0] ebanzi, kodwa ilingana. [ IJajin Billings Brown, ebhala inombolo engu-71, yaveza ukuthi isakhiwo esihlukene sasingalingani nezindawo ezisezingenisiwe, u-Creant, uJohn Marshall, ezindaweni ezinamandla, ezidume kakhulu, futhi ezidume kakhulu zezezezezezezezezezezenyuko.[2] [enyuko] [enyuk]

Izinqumo Zokwakha: Isithembiso Esifeziwe

Ukuze siqonde amalungelo esizwe, umuntu kumelwe abheke ezinzibeni zeSichibiyelo seshumi nanhlanu, seshumi nane neshumi elinesihlanu, ezagunyazwa phakathi kuka-1865 no-1870. Isichibiyelo seshumi nanhlanu seSichibiyelo seshumi nanhlanu saqeda ubugqila. ISiphendu seNkantolo Yeshumi Nesihlanu saqinisekisa ubuzibulo obulinganayo ngaphansi komthetho, isivikelo esifanele. IsiHlawulo seSimemezelo seshumi nanhlanu sakunqabela ukuncishwa kwelungelo lokuvota ngokusekelwe ehlalwa kwezinhlanga. Lokhu kuhlenga ukwakhiwa kwaso kumele uhlelo olusha ngokomthetho. Kodwa, iNkantolo ephakemekazinikazi yayiwayichaza kancane. [[FLT.][FLT][3]] ISiphetho seNkathisombululo sagunyaza ingu-CLGreastry [iright Treglesting] [igdentivements] [igded Revinces]] ingu engu-od Revolu

Inhlangano Yamalungelo Omphakathi Yaphakathi Nezenzo Zokwephula Umthetho

Ikhulu lama-20 leminyaka laba nokwanda kwezenzo zamalungelo omphakathi ezaguqula umthetho waseMelika ngokuyisisekelo. INaACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, ngaphansi kobuholi bukaTur Good Marshall, yathatha icebo elingokomthetho langamabomu lokuchitha ubandlululo ngamabomu. Imizamo yabo yafinyelela umvuthwandaba wokunqoba okuvelele kweNkantolo Ephakeme eyahlasela ekujuleni kwesimiso se-Jim Crow.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Icala lamalungelo omphakathi elidume kakhulu emlandweni waseMelika Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo yaseTopeka. Icala lahlanganisa ukumangalelwa okuhlanu okuhlukene okubekela inselele ukuhlukaniswa ngokohlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi. Esinqumweni esisodwa esibhalwe yiSikhulu seJaji Earl Warren, iNkantolo Ephakeme yagumbula [[FLT:].[FLT] v.[FLT:] [FLT], isho ukuthi "izemfundo ayilingani ngokwemvelo". INkakhululo yeze incikelele ubufakazi bezesayensi yezenhlalo ukuveza ukuthi ukulahlekelwa isithunzi kwezingane zaseAfrika i-Afrika, okuthinta izisusa izisusa ezifici zazo. [FLT:] Brown.[FFFFF:5] [f] Brown], yayingemthetho ongokomthetho womthetho; yayingamele ukubusa uhulumeni. Inkantolo yezena imvume yokuba izikhulu yeze futhi i-buzwe kahulumeni ukuba i-Burantri ibeke i-Bugradi

Gayle (1956): Ifa Elingokomthetho LeMontgomemery Bus Boycott

Rosa Parks ’ ukwenqaba ukuyeka isihlalo sakhe sebhasi ngoDecember 1, 1955, kwabangela iMontgomey Bus Boycott. Nokho, inselele engokomthetho eyaqeda ukuhlukanisa ibhasi eMontgomery yayingeyiyo Brown v. [[FL:1] kodwa icala elibizwa ngokuthi [[FLT:] Browder v. Gayle. I-faceder, ummeli osemusha waseMelika, icala lalethwalwa abesifazane abane abaye bacwaswa amabhasi amabhayisekili. Iqembu lesizwe elingu mbumbulu lakhipha umthetho wokuthi ibhasi le-Grabhayiseji le-Eddyt. Inkantolo ephakeme isekela isinqumo ngoNovember, i-de - proted, i-Mont - &17; uMenyosi umfana, futhi waveza i-Monster, isigaba esingu - sigaba esincane, esinguntanga esingumuva sombuso, esinguntanga kaLuther, esingu, esingu, esingu, esingu -

Long v. Virginia (1967): Ilungelo lokushada

Ngenkathi [[FLT: 0] ikhuluma ngesigaba sesikole, i-[FLT] ikhuluma ngesigaba sesikole, ngokuphuma v. Virginia ithathe impikiswano yomshado wezinhlanga ngezinhlanga. Ngo-1958, uRichard Long, indoda emhlophe, noMildred Jeter, owesifazane oNsundu, oshade eWashington, DC., ukuvala yonke imithetho evimbela ukuhlukana. IJajikisha. I-Prost Harrows Act ye-pal. Ngemva kokubuyela eVirginia, baboshwa futhi balahlwa icala. Umahluleli wabeka isigwebo sabo esimweni abashiya isifundazwe futhi bangabuyeli iminyaka engu 25. Icala lafinyelela inkantolo eqophelweni oluphakeme, futhi kamuva iphinde ibhale ngemvume emishadwe ngolimi olufanayo.[F]

Ukubekwa Kwemithetho Nokucwaswa Komsebenzi

Inhlangano yamalungelo abantu yaveza izingxenyana ezimbili ezivelele zomthetho kahulumeni: i-Civil Rights Act ka-1964 ne-Voting Rights Act ka-1965. Lemithetho yabhekana nezinselele ezisheshayo zomthetho, idinga iNkantolo Ephakeme ukuba ichaze futhi isekele ububanzi bayo. INkantolo i’ izinqumo kulenkathi zaqinisa uhulumeni i-’ inendima ekuqinisekiseni ukulingana emsebenzini, ezindaweni zokuhlala, nasezindaweni zomphakathi.

Inhliziyo yase - Atlanta Motel ngakolunye uhlangothi lwase - United States (1964)

Isihloko II soMthetho we-Civil Rights ka-1946 senqabela ukucwasana ezindaweni zomphakathi zokulala, njengamahhotela, amathilomu, namahholo. Umnini weNdebe ye-Atlanta Motel, eyasebenzela ikhasimende labamhlophe, wabekela umthetho inselele ukuthi uKhongolo lweqa igunya layo ngokuqondisa amabhizinisi azimele. [e-Atlanta Motel v. United States[FLD] [FLD] [1], iNkantolo ephakeme yasekela iSihlombe II njengendlela esemthethweni yeSishaya umthetho i-Congress Upress ̱ amandla okulawula ukuhwebelana kwezentengiselwano. INkantolo yabonisa ukuthi ukucwaswa kwezindawo zokuhlala ezithwele yi-omkhampalat. Izentembe yamazwe aseMelika ayesekwenqabela ukuduma kweze ukulwa kwezentengo yezohwebela yezomthetho.

Griggs v. Ukubusa Kwenkosi Co (1971): Ukungalingani

Nakuba izwa i-Atlanta ikhuluma ngokukhetha okungaphezulu, Griggs v. iphethe uhlobo olucashile lobandlululo. i-Duke Power Company yafuna izisebenzi ezisendaweni ethile ukuze zibe nesikole esiphakeme futhi idlulise ukuhlolwa kokuhlakanipha okuvamile. [[FLT:] Lezimfuneko ezingafanelekiswe kakhulu zaseMelika. Inkampani yaphikisa ukuthi ayihlongozi ukuhlukanisa. iNkathanga i-Amperoust Court, ebhalwe yiSikhulu seSipho, ebhalwe nguMahluleli kaWarren Burger, yalahla leyompikiswano. INkanto eyayikholelwa ukuthi imisebenzi ekhona [FLD] kodwa iveza ukuvikelwa kwemisebenzi enjalo.[F][F][3]

USwandan v.Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education (1971)

Ngemva Brown v. , izifunda eziningi zamelana nokuhlanganiswa. Isimiso sesikole seCharlotte-Mecklenburg eNyakatho Carolina sasala singekho kakhulu. Inkantolo yesifunda yayala ukuba kusetshenziswe igebe njengekhambi lokulingana kwezinhlanga. [[FLT:][FLT]] UStan v. Charlotte-Muckenburg Board of Education[, iNkantolo yeNkantolo ephakeme yasekela ukusetshenziswa kwebhasi, imingcele yezinhlanga, namanye amathuluzi okuhlukanisa izimiso zesikole ezimbaxakile. [[5] IJaji elibhalwe ukuthi "ukubhula ithuluzi elilodwa" lokufinyelela imiphumela edenuartum. Isinqumo sasekela i-Judiary &1717; ukuphangala kwezenyunyana kwezemthetho.[5]

Ukulwa Kwamalungelo Omphakathi Kwanamuhla Nenkantolo Eshintshashintshayo

Njengoba isizwe sasingena ekupheleni kwekhulu lama-20 nasekuqaleni kwelama-21, iNkantolo Ephakeme ̱ ilawula amalungelo abantu. INkantolo yaqala ukungaqiniseki kakhulu ngokuvuma, ukuvota isivikelo, namanye amakhambi angenangqondo. Ngesikhathi esifanayo, yandisa isivikelo samalungelo omphakathi ezindaweni ezinjenge LGBTQ+ ukulingana namalungelo okukhubazeka. Umphumela uyindikimba eyinkimbinkimbi nehlukene ngokuvamile eveza izimpikiswano eziqhubekayo ngokuphathelene nencazelo yesilinganiso. Ukuhlola okujulile kweNkantolo i-̱ ukuqulungwa kwamuva, [FLT:] [FLD:] kunikeza icala eliningi nezimpikiswano.

Shelby County v. UHonger (2013): Ukunciphisa iSivumelwano Samalungelo Abantu

Zimbalwa izinqumo zesimanje eziye zaba nethonya elisheshayo emhlabathini i-Shelby County v. Hoder. ISiphakamiso samaLungelo ngo-1965 sasinendlela edinga izifunda ezithile nezindawo ezinomlando wokukhetha ukuze kutholakale imvume ehlangene ngaphambi kokushintsha imithetho yokuvota. [Kuyisinqumo esingu-5-4], iNkantolo Ephakeme yakhipha leyondlela, iphikisa ukuthi yayisekelwe emninizweni eliphelelwe isikhathi futhi yaphula izimiso ze-bukhomyumo. IJaji eliyinhloko uJohns wabhala ukuthi i-Johns "isebenzise imingcele yokuqala yesigaba sokungena kwebhola" kodwa ukuthi akukho nqubo ekhona. Isinqumo saveza imfuneko yamanje. Emahoreni amaningi, kuhlanganise neyaseNyakatho ne-Carolmagean, i-Foctiveston. [[2] i-Foffnerton iyavuma kakhulu i-A i-Asensedvolution.] ezindaweni ezingundandayo.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Ukulingana komshado

Njengoba nje i- Virginia yamisa ilungelo lokuhlukanisa izinhlanga emshadweni, bergefell v. Hodges yamisa ilungelo lokushada ngokusemthethweni. Icala lahlanganisa izinselele eziningana zokumisa ukuvinjelwa komshado ongokobulili obubodwa. [Isinqumo sokuhlukanisa i-FLT:1] esingu-5-4, iNkanto ephakeme yanquma ukuthi iSichibiyelo seshumi nane sidinga zonke izivumelwano phakathi kwabantu ababili bobulili obufanayo nokuqaphela imishadoba ngokomthetho kwezinye izizwe. IJanube, ibhale isinqumo sezimiso zezimiso zomuntu siqu, ukuhlangana okusondelene, ukuhlangana nesithunzi. [5]

Filton v. iDolobha lasePhiladelphia (2021)

Ukucindezela phakathi kwenkululeko engokwenkolo nempikiswano kwafika eqophelweni lokuvikela [ku- ku-Flulton v. iDolobha lasePhiladelphia. Idolobha lasePhiladelphia layeka ukubhekisela kubantwana ababoshelwayo eMnyango weNtlalo weNkathi yamaKatolika (CSS) ngemva kokuthola ukuthi i-CSS ngeke igcine imibhangqwana efanayo nabazali abazalelayo. I-CSS i-solited. I-CS sudton, iphikisa ngokuthi i-'inqubo yedolobha i-̱ inyathelo laphula umthetho we-Free Classie Expressement of the Confestion' yenze inzuzo yeze.[4] Inkantolo eqhubekayo yezehlulele izimpikiswano zenkolo, kodwa i-FFoffand [est] ewugunyaza ngokungemthetho wonke.[5] [enye i-E.] i-E.[FFoff4] i-E.NS.NS.E.E.E

Abafundi Be - Fair Adgings n. Harvard (2023): Ukuphela Kwesenzo Sokuqinisa

Emashumini eminyaka, iNkantolo Ephakeme yayikusekele ukusetshenziswa okulinganiselwe kohlanga njengesici esisodwa ekuvumeni emakolishi ukukhuthaza ukwahlukahluka. [Ku- iziqu ze-Fair Adgicts v. I-Harvard[ necala elihambisana ne-University of North Carolina, iNkantolo yalawula lezozimo zesikhathi. [kusukela ku-Foct:] i-FT] inqumo ebanzi yakholelwa ukuthi izinhlelo ze-ligidi eziqondeneyo zeSivikelo sika-Claus. IJajistalathi enguMphathi uRoberts wabhala ukuthi "ukususa ubandlululo lusho ukususwa konke," nokuthi izinhlelo zokuvuma imibala. Isinqumo sokuzinye izinhlangano ezinhlandlayo siyekile ukuthi izinhlangano zeze i-Foctive. [F] Izinhlelo eziningi zokusekela izinhlangano eziningi zokusekela inguquko ezingoko.[4]

Impikiswano Yamalungelo Omphakathi

Ukuziphendukela kwenkululeko engokwenhlalo eUnited States akuyona indaba elandelanayo yentuthuko. Impi yempi Virginia, futhi impumelelo ngezikhathi ezithile. INkantolo Ephakeme ngezinye izikhathi iye yaba amandla obulungisa, njengaku [[FLT: 0] Brown v. [[[FLT:] i-[FLT] ne futhi [[FLT] ne[FLT] [umthetho] [umthetho] [uhlu] [uhlu] [umthetho] [umthetho] v.[FLT] v [noma inguquko].[noma isiphi isimo] [uhlu olungaphezulu] [umthetho] [noma isilinganiso sawonke, ihlulekayokuveza ukulingana nokuncipha kwezelela futhi kuvinye izikhalisa izikhali. INkalela isilinganiso sezelelwa yize yezempini yezempi.[FLT] futhi ihluleka ukuvikela imibuso engunxa enkulu kakhulu, kodwa ihluleka kakhulu kwemibuso enguhlulumo enkulu kakhulu, ingeye ihlulekayo, inikeza ihlulekayokuhlul