Isimiso Esihlala Njalo: Inqubo Efanele EMelika

Umqondo wenqubo efanele uyisisekelo sesimiso somthetho-mthetho waseMelika, isithembiso somthetho-sisekelo sokuthi uhulumeni ngeke unciphe noma yimuphi umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla. Kungaphezu nje kwenqubo elandelwayo; inzuzo eqiniswe kakhulu ebonisa ukuthi isizwe u-’ isusa ukuqonda okungalungisi, ubulungisa, nobuhlobo phakathi komuntu nombuso. Uhambo lwenqubo efanelekile ukusuka emfundisweni ephakathi nendawo luyi-graclement eyi-lectal eyi-lectivestyraving ebona ngayo i-acess enamandla umlando waseMelika ngokwayo. Ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kubonisa indlela izimiso ezingokomthetho ezivumelana ngayo nokushintsha kwezimiso zezenhlalo, ukuhleleka kobuchwepheshe, nokuqonda okusha kwesithunzi somuntu. Lokhu kuqinisekisa ukuthi imithetho isebenza ngendlela elinganayo futhi abantu ngabanye kunezimo ezinengqondo, kuhlala njalo ngemizwa ngemizwa yezindaba yobulungisa yaseMelika yanamuhla.

Umsuka Womlando: Kusukela EMagna Carta Kuya Ezakhiweni Zamazwe Angaphansi Kwamazwe

Uhlu lohlu lolwazi nomthetho lwenqubo efanelekile luhlehlela emuva e-Atlantic luye emasimini ase-Runnymede ngo-1215. Nakuba i-Magna Carta ingalisebenzisi igama eliqondile "lokuhamba phambili kwenqubo yomthetho," iSahluko sayo esigujwa sika-39 samisa umqondo oyisisekelo wokuthi akukho muntu okhululekile ongabanjwa, oboshwe, noma aphucwe amalungelo akhe "ngaphandle kokwahlulela okungokomthetho kontanga yakhe noma umthetho wezwe." Lenkulumo ethi, "umthetho wezwe," yasebenza njengesibonelo esiqondile kulokho kamuva okungabizwa ngokuthi "ukungasese""" lokhu kwakuwumngcele owenqaba onamandla obukhosi, ukuqinisekisa ukuthi inkosi ngokwayo yayingaphansi komthetho omisiwe.

Emakhulwini eminyaka kamuva, abahluleli bamaNgisi njengoSir Edward Coke ku- I-Instituties of the Laws of England [1628]) balinganisa ngokucacile "umthetho wezwe" ngokusho "inqubo yokuqala yomthetho," bephikisa ngokuthi iqinisekisa indinganiso ethile yenqubo yokwahlulela. Lemibono yanqamula i-Atlantic namakoloni futhi yafakwa emathalikeni akuqala. I-Massachusetts of Liberes (1641), ngokwesibonelo, yayiqukethe amalungiselelo okuvikela abantu ngabanye ekujezisweni okungenamthetho omthetho oqinile, ebonisa izimpande ezijulile zalelisiko elingokomthetho eMelika. Ukuhlangenwe nakho okubonakala kokubusa ngokuzibusa kobuthathu phakathi nenkathi yeBhholishi embusweni kuphela yemithetho engokomthetho edinga ukuvikelwa yilungelo lomuntu ngamunye embusweni.

I - Constitution Foundation: Izichibiyelo Zesihlanu Nezashumi Nane

Abakhi boMthetho-sisekelo wase-United States, ababengene shí esikweni lomthetho ovamile, babeqonda ukubaluleka okuyinhloko kwenqubo efanelekile. Nokho, uMthetho-sisekelo wokuqala wawungenayo inqubo ekhethekile efunekayo. Lokho kwafika ngeSigqi seSigqi seSigqi sesihlanu, esagunyazwa ngo-1791, sihlanganisa isiqondiso sokuthi akukho muntu ozothiwa “ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho. ” Lokhu kwaqondwa ekuqaleni ukuba kusebenze kuphela ezenzweni zikahulumeni, isiqinisekiso esingokomthetho esiqinisekisa ukuthi izinkantolo zikahulumeni nezikhulu zilandela izinqubo ezingokomthetho ezimisiwe ngaphambi kokujezisa isakhamuzi.

Inkathi yokuguqula inqubo efanelekile eMelika yafika ngokuncishiswa kweSichibiyelo seNguquko seshumi nane ngo-1868, enye yeziNguqulo ezintathu. Ingxenye 1 yenguquko imemezela ukuthi akukho mbuso ozo "guqula noma yimuphi umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho. Lokhu kwandiswa okulula kwenqubo elindelekile kuqinisekisa kohulumeni [[[FLT: 1] ngokuyisisekelo] ushintsho lwesimiso sombuso waseMelika. Yakha ithuluzi elisha elinamandla lokubekela abantu inselele izenzo enkantolo yombuso futhi yabeka isisekelo sokusebenza ekugcineni kweMibuso yamalungelo amaningi asemthethweni eyaziwa ngokuthi [[FLT:] [FLD]] [FLT] [FT] [FT] [FT] [FT] [3] I-Geneticssionstructionmentss Procectionment: 14].[Pist]

IRepublic Yakuqala: Inqubo Efanele Yokuvikelwa Kwempahla

Ekhulwini lokuqala leRepublic, incazelo yenqubo efanele yayincane kakhulu futhi igxile kakhulu emalungelweni empahla nasekwenzeni njalo. Ukuqonda okungokomthetho okwakukhona kwakuwukuthi inqubo efanelekile yayidinga uhulumeni ukuba alandele izinqubo ezimisiwe zomthetho i-— ukuzwa okufanele, isaziso, nokunamathela emthetho wemithetho i-— ngaphambi kokuthatha umuntu i-’ impahla. Izinkantolo zazikhathalela ngokuyinhloko ukuqinisekisa ukuthi izwe linesithukuthezi, ukuqoqwa kwezikwele zentela, futhi zikhokhwa izikhokhiso zemithetho.

Lenkathi yaqala ukubhekana neNkantolo Ephakeme ngokuchaza imingcele ye-"liberty" ne "efanele". Dred Scott v. Sandford icala (1857], iNkantolo yasebenzisa ngokudumekileyo inqubo efanelekile yokucabanga ngokubulala iMissouri ukuhlehla, ibambe ukuthi uhulumeni ngeke unciphe umnikazi wempahla yakhe u— umuntu ogqitshwe izigqila (1857) ngokunqabela ubugqila emasini kahulumeni. Nakuba ukuziphatha okubi futhi kamuva, lesi sinqumo sabonisa amandla amakhulu abekwayo enqubo engokomthetho efanelekile: amandla okulahla umthetho ngokwawo, umqondo obuyela ngempindiselo.

I-procedtural v. Ukuhlukanisa inqubo elindelekile

Ukuziphendukela kwemvelo okungokomthetho kwenqubo efanele kuye kwaphawulwa ukusungulwa kwamagatsha amabili ahlukene, kodwa ahlobene: inqubo eyisisekelo neyinqubo efanelekile.

Inqubo ejwayelekile

Lena incazelo yokuqala, eyisisekelo yenqubo efanelekile. Ithinta indlela yomsebenzi kahulumeni. Yiziphi izinqubo eziqondile okumelwe zilandelwe uhulumeni ngaphambi kokuba uphuce umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla? Imfuneko eyinhloko iwukulunga okuyisisekelo. Lokhu kuhlanganisa:

  • Notice: Umuntu kumele aziswe ngesenzo sikahulumeni esisele.
  • [ Uzwa: Umuntu kumelwe abe nethuba lokuveza uhlangothi lwendaba phambi komenzi wesinqumo ongakhethi.
  • [[Umthetho:0] Ilungelo leseluleko: Ezimweni ezingathi sína zobugebengu, ukumelelwa ummeli.
  • Ukubhekisisa: Ikhono lokunqamleza ofakazi be-examine.

Icala eliyingqophamlando iMathews v. i-Eldidge yasungula ukuhlolwa okulinganiselayo ukuze kuthole ukuthi yiziphi izinqubo ezidingekayo. Izinkantolo zinesisindo samaphuzu amathathu: (1) isithakazelo somuntu siqu esithintekile, (2) ingozi yokungatholi izinhlelo zamanje kanye nokubaluleka okulindelekile kokuvikelwa okwengeziwe, kanye (3) nesithakazelo sikahulumeni, kuhlanganise nemithwalo yemithetho emisiwe neyabaphathi ebekelwe imingcele. Lendinganiso eguquguqukayo ivumela izinkantolo ukuba zilungise izimfuneko ezifanele emo-momomomomoyeni, kusukela ekuqulweni kwemiya ukukhubazeka ukuze kuhlangane izivivinyo eziqinile zejaji zezelele.

Inqubo Engeyona Inkinga

Lokhu kuyimpikiswano enkulu neyanamuhla yemfundiso efanelekile. Ikhathalela ukuthi iziphi izinqubo zikahulumeni. Inqubo edingayo engaphansi ibuza ukuthi uhulumeni unesizathu esifanele sokuncisha umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle komthetho osetshenziswayo. Igomela ukuthi amanye amalungelo ayisisekelo asekelwe kakhulu ku-’ umlando nenkambiso yokuthi uhulumeni awunakumelana nazo, ngisho nangezwi eliphelele.

Lomqondo wavela enkathini , lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme iyisebenzisa ukubulala imithetho yezezomnotho, njengemithetho emisa amahora aphezulu asebenzayo, ezisekelweni abaphula kuzo i-"imvume". Lowner v. New York[ [0], lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme iyisebenzisa ukuqeda imithetho yezomnotho, njengemithetho ehlela amahora asebenzayo, ezisekelweni ezisekelweni ezithi zaphula i-"imvume yesivumelwano""""'. Lenkathi, eyaziwa ngokuthi inkathi [[FLT:]] i, igxekwa kakhulu ngeNkakhulu yeNkantolo elawulayo yezomnotho yayo siqu ngenxa yalokho okusemthethwe yindawo yombuso wezwe. Ngemva kweNkahulumeni ye-Gwamu ye-Genetic Coustmentmentation, inqandalmentmentation enqanyuse productionmental.

Ukuhlolwa: Ukusebenzisa Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo Kahulumeni

Isiqephu esibucayi ekuziphendukeleni kwenqubo efanele imfundiso yokufakwa. ISigqi Samalungelo, njengoba kwabhalwa ekuqaleni, sisebenza kuhulumeni kahulumeni kuphela. Lokhu kusho ukuthi umbuso ungaphula amalungelo afana nenkululeko yokukhuluma noma ilungelo lokuqulwa kwejaji ngaphandle kokukhokhwa uMthetho-sisekelo. ISimemezelo se-14th Seziphetho i-’ i-STED Procession Claus yanikeza imoto ukuba ishintshe lokhu.

INkantolo Ephakeme ayizange isebenzise wonke amaBhili of Rights ngokushesha emizweni. Kunalokho, yaqhubeka iveza inqubo ebizwa ngokuthi "ukhetho lokukhetha" iNkantolo yabuza ukuthi ilungelo elithile liyilo yini "lokusekela icebo lokwahlulela lase-Melika" noma "elisekelwe ekuqondeni inkululeko egunyaziwe" iJaji Benjamin Cardozo ngokudume ukuthi ukuhlolwa kungumqondo "wokukhetha ngokomthetho wecebo lenkululeko emisiwe""""""

Izenzakalo eziyinhloko kulenqubo zihlanganisa:

  • Gitlow v. New York (1925): Yasebenzisa i Free Spee Spee Claus yeSichibiyelo Sokuqala ezizweni.
  • Nearb v. Minnesota[[FL:1] (1931]): Yasebenzisa i Free Press Claus.
  • [[UMTH:0] Cantwell v.Connecticut (1940): Yasebenzisa i Free Exect Claus.
  • Everson v. ibhodi yemfundo (1947): Yasebenzisa i-Claus ebekweyo.
  • Mapp v.Oo (1961): Yasebenzisa iSichibiyelo sesine isivikelo ekuphenyeni okungacabangeki nokuquleka kanye nomthetho wokuzihlukanisa.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Yasebenzisa iSichibiyelo seSithandathu ekululekeni.
  • [[UMTL:0] Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Wasebenzisa ilungelo leSichibiyelo sesihlanu ngokumelene nokuzishintsha.
  • [[UMTL:0] Duncan v. Louisiana (1968): Yakhipha iSichibiyelo seSithandathu sathatha icala lamacala abahluleli.

Le nqubo iye yaqinisekisa ukuthi isivikelo esiyinhloko seBhili Lamalungelo sinjengendawo yesizwe yenkululeko, ebopha wonke amazinga kahulumeni e - United States.

Amacala Aphakeme Enkantolo

Izinqumo eziningana zeNkantolo Ephakeme ziye zaba izenzakalo eziphawulekayo ekuziphendukeleni kwemvelo, zilolonge izinga lenqubo yazo nokusetshenziswa kwayo ezizukulwaneni ngezizukulwane.

Inqubo Eyayifaneleka Ngekhulu Lama - 20: Inkathi Yamalungelo Omphakathi Nangemva Kwawo

Ikhulu lama-20, ikakhulukazi kusukela ngawo-1950 kuya kuma-1970, labona ukwanda okuphawulekayo kwamalungelo enqubo. Inhlangano yama-Civil Rights yabhekana ngokuqondile nokwehluleka kwesimiso somthetho sokunikeza ubulungisa obulinganayo kuma-Black America. INkantolo Ephakeme, ngaphansi kweSikhulu sikaMahluleli u-Earl Warren, yanikeza uchungechunge lwezinqumo ezaguqula inqubo yobugebengu yaseMelika kanye namalungelo abantu ngabanye.

  • Inkantolo yanikeza inqubo yokuvikela esimisweni sokwahlulela somthetho [, iqinisekisa ukuthi kusuka ngesikhathi sokuboshwa ngokuqulwa kwecala nokudluliswa isikhalo.
  • Izindaba ezifana Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954), kuyilapho inqunywe ngaphansi kwe-Encible Protection Clause, yaboniswa ukukhathalela okufanayo kokulunga okuyisisekelo okuyisisekelo okusekela inqubo efanele.
  • Inkantolo yaqala ukusebenzisa izimfuneko ezifanele kumthetho wokuphatha , idinga ukuqulwa kahle ngaphambi kokuba kutholakale izinzuzo zenhlalakahle, ukulondeka kwezenhlalo, nokukhubazeka.
  • i- Virginia (1967), iNkantolo yalahla imithetho evimbela ukuganana kwezinhlanga, imisa isinqumo sayo kokubili i-Actal Programme ne-Createment Clauss, iqaphela inkululeko yokushada njengelungelo eliyisisekelo.

Le nkathi yaqinisa ukuqonda ukuthi inqubo efanele ayiyona imithetho ehleliwe kodwa indinganiso enamandla yokulunga okumelwe ivumelane nemongo entsha futhi iqinisekise ukuthi bonke abantu, ikakhulukazi abangaphansi nabanamandla, bayakwazi ukuthola ubulungisa.

Izincazelo Zanamuhla: Imfihlo, Ubuchwepheshe Nezindawo Ezintsha Zokuhwebelana

Emashumini eminyaka amuva, ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kwenqubo efanele kuye kwalolongwa kakhulu ushintsho olusheshayo lwezobuchwepheshe namaqiniso amasha ezenhlalo. Isici esibaluleke kakhulu sentuthuko siye saba ukuhlangana kwenqubo efanele kanye namalungelo okungalawuleki .

Uma sakha amacala adinga inqubo edinga ukudluliswa enqubweni ehilela umkhaya namalungelo okuzala, iNkantolo iye yaphikisana nendlela iSichibiyelo sesine i’ isivikelo ekuhloleni okungacabangeli nokuquleka, okusetshenziswa ezizweni ngenqubo efanelekile, kusebenza emininingwaneni yobuchwepheshe. I-Riliy v. iCalifornia [iNkakhulu] [iNkakhulu] [iNkantolo] [iNkantolo Ephakeme] [iNkantolo] evumelana ngayo ngokuthi amaphoyisa ngokuvamile adinga isiqinisekiso sokuhlola okuqukethwe ucingo olubanjwa phakathi kocingo phakathi kocingo phakathi kocingo phakathi kocingo oluboshelwe ngenkathi entsha. INkakhulu le komiti yaqaphela ukuthi amasondo amakhulu kakhulu okungahlolwayo kumelwe athole amasha.

Ezinye izinselele zanamuhla zihlanganisa:

  • Ukuhlanganisa: impikiswano evusa intukuthelo ngesilinganiso samalungelo enqubo afanele abantu abangewona amathumba ababhekene nokudingiswa, ikakhulukazi ngokuphathelene nokuthola ukumelelwa okungokomthetho nokusetshenziswa kwezinqubo zokususa ezicacisiwe. INkantolo Ephakeme iphethe ukuthi inqubo efanele iyasebenza ezingxoxweni zokufuduka kodwa ayiqinisekisanga ilungelo leseluleko esimisiwe.
  • Ukulondeka kwesizwe nokwehla kwe-Surveillance:[ Izinkinga ze Post-9/11 zibangele ukungezwani phakathi kwezokulondeka nenkululeko. Izinhlelo ezinjengokuthumba okungenalusizo nokuboshwa kwamasosha alwa nezitha ziye zaphakamisa imibuzo ejulile edingayo mayelana namandla okulawula kanye namalungelo abantu abahlolwa njengezinsongozo.
  • I-social Media and Public Forums: Njengoba izikhulu zikahulumeni zisebenzisa imithombo yezokuxhumana ngokuqhubekayo, kuphakama imibuzo yokuthi izakhamuzi zinenqubo efanelekile yini yokungena kulezindawo zobuchwepheshe nokuthi ingabe abasebenzisi bakha ukuncishwa kwe-infonom okungavumelani nemithetho.

Izinselele Zesikhathi Esizayo

Naphezu kobungqabavu bomthetho - sisekelo, isithembiso senqubo efanelekile sibhekene nezinselele ezinkulu eMelika ephakathi kwekhulu lama - 21. Izinkinga zesimiso sokwahlulela kobugebengu, ukungalingani kwezomnotho, nokuhlukana kwezombangazwe kubangela ukusongela okuqhubekayo kwendlela engcono yokulunga okuyisisekelo.

  • AmaMas Incarceation and Plea Barganing: Icala elikhulu lobugebengu lixazululwa ngokuncenga, hhayi ngokulingwa. Lesimiso siphakamisa inqubo ephawulekayo edingayo, njengoba abamangalelwa bevame ukucindezelwa ukuba baphuce amalungelo abo okuqulwa ngaphansi kosongo lwemisho emide kakhulu. Ilungelo lokululeka lingaba umthetho uma abavikeli bomphakathi bencishwa amakhulu emacala, bashiye isikhathi esincane sokumelela umuntu ngamunye.
  • Izimiso zemali zebheyili zingajezisa abantu ngokuba abampofu, zibagcine ejele ngaphambi kokuqulwa kwecala hhayi ngoba beyingozi yokundiza, kodwa ngenxa yokuthi abanakho ukukhokha. Lokhu kuhlanganisa ngokuqondile inqubo efanelekile yokungakhokhi futhi kuphuca abantu inkululeko yabo ngaphandle kokuqiniseka.
  • ICivil Asset Forfeiture: Lomkhuba uvumela ukugcinwa komthetho ukuba kuthathe impahla esolwa ukuthi ihlangene nobugebengu. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi lenqubo ivame ukubeka umthwalo kumnini-mpahla ukuze kufakazelwe ukuthi akanacala, ukuguqulwa okuyisisekelo kwesimiso esimisiwe sokuthi uhulumeni kumelwe athwale umthwalo wobufakazi.
  • Ukulandisa nokungangeni hlangothi okufanelekile: Imfundiso engokomthetho yokuzivikela komzimba ingenza kube nzima ukuba amaphoyisa abekelwe icala ngokusemthethweni ngenxa yokwephulwa komthetho-mthetho, kuhlanganise nokuphulwa kwenqubo okufaneleyo, ngaphandle kokuba ilungelo limisiwe "ngokucacile". Lokhu kungashiya abantu bengenalo ikhambi lokulimala, kunciphise ukugcinwa kwenqubo efanelekile.

Ikusasa Lenqubo Efanele Ezweni Eliyinkimbinkimbi

Ukubheka phambili, ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kwenqubo efanele akukapheli. Inselele eyisisekelo iyohlala ilinganisela amalungelo omuntu siqu ngokumelene nezimfuno zokulondeka, ukuphumelela, nezenzo ezihlangene. Izindawo eziningana eziyinhloko cishe ziyohlela isahluko esilandelayo salendaba engokomthetho - sisekelo.

  • Ubulungisa be-AlGalgarithm kunye ne-Al: Njengoba izinhlangano zikahulumeni zisebenzisa i-algorith kanye nokuhlakanipha kokwenziwa ezinqumweni eziphathelene nokugwetshwa, ukunciphiswa kwezingane, nokuzuza inhlalakahle yezingane, imibuzo emisha ephakamayo ngenqubo efanelekile. Ingaba i-algorithm ingacubungulwa ngokucatshanga ngokucwa kwe-athonsi? Ingacubungula yini "ukucabanga" ukuze kucatshange? Ukuveza ukukhanya bha kanye nethuba elibalulekile lokubekela izinqumo ezizenza inselele inselele inqubo yekhulu lama-21 leminyaka.
  • Imfihlo njengeNdlandla yenkululeko: Umqondo "wendlela efanelekile" enkathini yonyaka ususa. Abantu bakhiqiza izilinganiso ezinkulu zokwaziswa komuntu siqu. Ingabe inqubo efunekayo ivikela i-’ isithakazelo emninindweni yabo siqu? Izinkantolo zesikhathi esizayo zingachaza ezintsha "izithakazelo zokwahlukanisa" ekulawuleni ulwazi lomuntu siqu, ukuhlelwa kweqoqo likahulumeni nokusetshenziswa kwalo.
  • Ubulungisa obungokomnotho nezindawo zokuhlala: Inkinga yezindlu nokungalingani okukhulayo kwezomnotho kuphoqelela imibuzo efanelekile ngaphambili. Ilungelo lokululeka ekuxoshweni kwenqubo liyintshukumo ekhulayo, esekelwe empendulweni yokuthi ukulahlekelwa okukhulu kwekhaya kudinga isivikelo esilingana nesendaweni yobugebengu. Ngokufanayo, ukuzwa ngokungakhethi ekuqoqweni kwezikweletu nasesikweletini kuyizimali eziboletwayo kuyizingxenye zokwanda okungase kwenzeke.
  • Ukuhlela i-Criminal Justice System: Kukhona ukuvumelana okubanzi ngesidingo senguquko. Ikusasa liyobona imizamo eqhubekayo yokunciphisa ukuboshwa kwenqwaba yabantu, izimiso zenguquko, ukwandisa izimali zokusekela umphakathi, nokuthuthukisa ukulandisa kwamaphoyisa. Zonke lezinguquko, mayelana nokuqinisa nokuvuselela isithembiso senqubo efanele.

Ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kwenqubo efanele emthethweni waseMelika nasemphakathini kuyisiqinisekiso esiqinile samandla ahlala njalo omqondo wokuthi uhulumeni akanamandla. Isimiso sokuthi wonke umuntu, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi unegunya elingakanani, unelungelo lokuphathwa ngobulungisa ngaphansi komthetho singumthetho we-recustommentalism yaseMelika. Nakuba ukuchazwa kwalesosimiso semithetho kushintshile futhi kwandisiwe emakhulwini amaningi eminyaka, injongo yaso eyisisekelo ihlala ifana: ukuvikela u-’ izithakazelo eziyisisekelo kakhulu emandleni ohulumeni azimele. Njengoba umphakathi uqhubeka ushintsha, ingxoxo eqhubekayo yenqubo efanelekile iyohlala ikhona ephakathi kwesizwe i-’ ifuna isibopho esiphelele ngokwengeziwe.