Table of Contents

INkantolo Ephakeme yase-United States ingenye yezinhlangano ezinamandla kakhulu eMelika ebusa ngentando yeningi, isebenza njengomgcini wokugcina wamalungelo omthetho-sisekelo futhi ingumsunguli wokugcina wezimpikiswano ezingokomthetho. Njengoba umsunguli wokugcina womthetho, iNkantolo ibekwa icala lokuqinisekisa abantu baseMelika ngesithembiso sobulungisa obulinganayo ngaphansi komthetho futhi kanjalo, isebenza futhi njengomlondolozi nomchazi woMthetho-sisekelo. Ukuqonda ukuthi lenhlangano isebenza kanjani, izinga legunya layo, kanye nethonya elijulile izinqumo zayo ekuphileni kwansuku zonke kubalulekile kubo bonke abantu baseMelika abafuna ukwazi amalungelo abo futhi bahlanganyele ngokunenjongo esimisweni sethu sombuso wentando yeningi.

Isisekelo Segunya Lenkantolo Ephakeme

ISiphakamiso III, Ingxenye 1 yoMthetho-sisekelo imisa iNkantolo Ephakeme yase-United States. Okwamanje, kunaMahluleli ayisishiyagalolunye eNkantolo. Ngaphambi kokuba athathe isikhundla, uMahluleli ngamunye kumelwe amiswe nguMongameli futhi aqiniswe yiSigele. AmaJaji athatha isikhundla phakathi nokuziphatha okuhle, ngokuvamile, ukuze aphile. Lokhu kuphila akuzenzakaleli ngengozi. − − − yaklanywa ngabakhi bomthetho wokuvikela ezingcindezelweni zezombangazwe futhi ibavumele ukuba benze izinqumo ezisekelwe emthethweni nasezimisweni zomthetho kunokuba bathathele izinhloso ezithandwayo noma ukucabangela okungokwabantu.

Ingxenye 1 yeSiphakamiso III yamisa iNkantolo ePhakeme futhi ichaza ukuvikelwa nokukhokhwa okunikezwa amajaji eNkantolo ukuze iqinisekise ukuthi banokuvunyelwa okwanele ekucindezeleni kwezombangazwe ukuba bakwazi ukwenza izinqumo ezifanele. Amalunga asebenza "ekuqhubeni nokuziphatha okuhle," okungasho ukuphila ngokuphumelelayo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, iSishaya-mthetho asinakunciphisa imiholo yamajaji; ngakho, amanye amagatsha kahulumeni awasongeli ngokulahlekelwa yiholo ukuze acindezele izinqumo zabo.

Ukuqalisa Kokubukeza Kokwahlulela

Enye yemibuso ebaluleke kakhulu iNkantolo Ephakeme iyazivivinya − judicial memory profession jption kodwa yamiswa ngomthetho wecala eliyingqopha - mlando. Amandla eNkantolo yokwahlulela awaqinisekiswanga kwaze kwaba ngo-1803, lapho icelwa uMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall kuMarbury v. Madison. Lelicala lesisekelo lamisa isimiso sokuthi iNkantolo Ephakeme inegunya lokumemezela imithetho engekho ngokweziqu zomthetho.

IJaji eliyinhloko uMarshall lathi: “Kuyisifundazwe somnyango wokwahlulela ukusho ukuthi umthetho uyini. Lokhu kugomela kwalo kulololonga ukubusa kwaseMelika ngokumisa ijaji njengegatsha likahulumeni elilinganayo elinamandla okuhlola amagatsha omthetho nomphathi.

Abaningi boFata Abasunguliwe babelindele ukuba iNkantolo Ephakeme ithathe lendima ngokuphathelene noMthetho-sisekelo; ngokwesibonelo, uAlexander Hamilton noJames Madison, babenokubaluleka kokubukeza kokwahlulela kumaFederali Papers, ayekhuthaza ukuthathwa koMthetho-sisekelo. Hamilton wayebhale ukuthi ngomkhuba wokubukeza iNkantolo yahlulelo yaqinisekisa ukuthi intando yabo bonke abantu, njengoba iboniswe eMthethweni - sisekelo wabo, yayiyoba ephakeme kakhulu kunentando yentando yendlu yomthetho, emithetho yayo ingaveza kuphela intando yesikhashana yabantu.

Indlela INkantolo Ephakeme Ewuchaza Ngayo Umthetho - sisekelo

Incazelo yomthetho-mthetho iwumsuka wemisebenzi yeNkantolo Ephakeme. Imingcele esungulwa nguMthetho-sisekelo ibekwe ngamagama abanzi, avamile futhi ngokuvamile ayicacile. Lokhu kungacaci kudinga ukuchazwa, futhi izindlela zokuchaza amalungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo zisho okukhulu ngamalungelo omuntu ngamunye kanye nemibuso kahulumeni.

Izindlela Zokuchaza Umthetho - sisekelo

Lapho isebenzisa amandla ayo okubukeza ubunjalo bomthetho-mthetho wesenzo sikahulumeni, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yathembela ezindleleni ezithile zencazelo (izindlela) zokuchaza − okungukuthi, izindlela zokuveza incazelo ethile yelungiselelo ngaphakathi koMthetho-sisekelo. Lezizindlela zokuchaza zihlanganisa izindlela eziningana ezihlukene:

I-alticism:[ I-Textalism iyindlela yokuchaza egxila encazelweni ecacile yombhalo wencwadi engokomthetho. I-Textalialism ivame ukugcizelela indlela amagama asemthethweni aqondwa ngayo ngabantu ngesikhathi agunyazwa ngaso, kanye nomongo avezwa ngawo lawo magama.

I-Judicial Predentidenti: Umthombo ovame ukukhonjwa wencazelo yomthetho-sisekelo yizinqumo zeNkantolo ePhakeme ezingaphambili ezimayelana nemibuzo yomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo. Ngoba uma kungezona zonke izigebengu, izenzakalo zokwahlulela zinikeza izimiso, imithetho, noma izindinganiso zokulawula izinqumo ezicathulweni zesikhathi esizayo namaqiniso afanayo.

UbuPragmat: Ukuthatha izindlela kuvame ukuhlanganisa iNkantolo elinganisayo noma elinganisela imiphumela engenzekayo yokuchazwa kwenye incazelo yoMthetho-sisekelo nezinye izincazelo. Okunye ukuzwana kohlelo lwe-progmatism kulinganisela izindleko zesikhathi esizayo nezinzuzo zokuchazwa komphakathi noma amagatsha ezombangazwe, kukhetha incazelo engaholela emphumeleni ongcono kakhulu.

Amandla Okumemezela Imithetho Engekho

INkantolo ingasho ukuthi isenzo selinye igatsha likahulumeni siphula imingcele ethile emandla alelogatsha futhi ngenxa yalokho siyize, noma asivumelani nemithetho. Lamandla okuhlola ukwahlulela amelela enye yeziphetho nezilinganiso ezibaluleke kakhulu esimisweni sikahulumeni waseMelika.

Leli gunya lokuhlola lokwahlulela liyisici esibaluleke kakhulu semibuso yeNkantolo. Ngaleyondlela iNkantolo isebenza njengo "umpemper" womdlalo wezombangazwe, itshela abakhethiwe "abaholi" abanjengeSishaya-Mkhandlu, umongameli, nezwe ukuthi yini abangayenza nangeke bayenze. Ngalendima, iNkantolo ilondoloza imingcele engokomthetho-mthetho echaza futhi ilinganise amandla kahulumeni.

Ngasekupheleni kwawo-1990, iNkantolo yamemezela izenzo ezingaphezu kwamakhulu amabili zombuso wobumba-mthetho ongekho emthethweni futhi yachitha inani elikhulu kakhulu lemithetho kahulumeni. Ngasinye salezi zinqumo sigcizelela isimiso sokuthi awukho umthetho, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi uthandwa noma uhloselwe kahle kangakanani, ongama uma uphula izimiso zomthetho.

Uhambo Lomcimbi Oluya Enkantolo Ephakeme

Ukuqonda indlela amacala afinyelela ngayo eNkantolo Ephakeme kubalulekile ekuqapheleni indima yeNkantolo esimisweni sokwahlulela. Indlela ayilula futhi ayiqinisekisiwe, futhi imbalwa kakhulu amacala atholakalayo enkantolo ePhakeme.

Isicelo Se - dertiorari

Emacala amaningi, okuwukuphela kwendlela yokufinyelela eNkantolo Ephakeme iwukufaka isicelo sesicelo se-certiorari, esaziwa futhi njengesicelo se-certiorari, ngemva kokuba inkantolo yesifunda kahulumeni noma inkantolo ephakeme kahulumeni inqume. Lesi sicelo siyisicelo esingokomthetho esicela iNkantolo Ephakeme ukuba ibukeze isinqumo senkantolo ephansi.

Isicelo sesicelo se-certiorari, noma 'isicelo,' siyincwadi lapho umkhangisi owalahleka kwenye inkantolo ecela khona iNkantolo Ephakeme ukuba ibukeze icala labo. Ngaphansi kwemithetho yeNkantolo Ephakeme, isicelo se-certler ngokuvamile kumelwe sigcinwe phakathi nezinsuku ezingu-90 (esifinyelele ku-20) ngemva kokukhipha isahlulelo sayo sokugcina senkantolo ephansi.

Cishe amacala angomphakathi namacala obugebengu angu-5 000 abekwa eNkantolo Ephakeme unyaka ngamunye evela ezinkantolo ezihlukene zikahulumeni nohulumeni. Nokho, izikhankaso zeNkantolo Ephakeme zasayina izinqumo ezimalunga angu-60 ngonyaka. Lokho kwehla kusukela kuma- 160 onyaka ka-1980 futhi kuphansi kakhulu kunenani lamacala anqunywa eminyakeni engu-15 edlule.

Ukubusa Kwezine

INkantolo Ephakeme isebenzisa indlela ethile ukunquma ukuthi yimaphi amacala okuzwakala. Okungenani amane amalungu eNkantolo kumelwe avote ukuze anikeze imvume yokunikeza i-certiorari, evumela ukubukezwa okugcwele kwezimfanelo. Lomkhuba, owaziwa ngokuthi "Icala lesine," uqinisekisa ukuthi amajaji ambalwa angaletha amacala abalulekile phambi kweNkanto egcwele ukuze ahlolwe.

Nakuba ubulungisa ngabunye bunokuhlakanipha kokubukeza izicelo ze-cert, bonke babukezwa okokuqala omabhalane bezomthetho. Lesi isigaba lapho amaphesenti angaphezu kuka-79 okuncenga ehlungwa khona, kungamelwe ahlolwe ngokwawo.

Imaphi Amacala Inkantolo Ewakhethayo?

INkantolo Ephakeme ikhetha amacala evumelana nawo, ithambekele ekufuneni amacala ahilela imibuzo ebalulekile engokomthetho - sisekelo noma imithetho kahulumeni ebalulekile, ikakhulukazi lawo athinta amalungelo omphakathi noma ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso.

Isizathu esiyinhloko esibangela icala ngokuvamile ukuba kube "kuhlukanisa." lokhu kulapho izinkantolo eziphansi zingavumelani ngokuthi zingawuchaza kanjani umthetho ohilelekile noma uma izinkantolo ezingefani ziwuchaza ngendlela ehlukile umthetho. Uma izinkantolo zamacala angaphansi zikahulumeni zifinyelela iziphetho eziphikisanayo ngombuzo ofanayo ongokomthetho, iNkantolo Ephakeme ivame ukuthatha izinyathelo ukuze inikeze incazelo efanayo okumelwe zonke izinkantolo ilandele.

Inkantolo ngokuvamile yenza kanjalo kuphela uma icala lingaba nokubaluleka kwesizwe, lingavumelanisa izinqumo ezingqubuzanayo ezinkantolo zesifunda zikahulumeni, futhi noma kungaba nenani eliyindinganiso. Lokhu kukhetha kuqinisekisa ukuthi iNkantolo igxilisa izimali zayo ezilinganiselwe emacaleni ayoba nethonya elikhulu kakhulu emthethweni nasemphakathini waseMelika.

Icala Lokuqala Lokusola

Nakuba amacala amaningi efinyelela iNkantolo ePhakeme ngezikhalo, iNkantolo futhi inegunya lokuqala ezinhlotsheni ezithile zezimpikiswano. Umthetho-sisekelo uthi iNkantolo Ephakeme inegunya lakuqala nele-ase-palect. Ukubusa kwakuqala kusho ukuthi iNkantolo Ephakeme ingowokuqala, futhi kuphela, iNkantolo yokulalela icala. UMthetho-sisekelo ulinganisela ukulawulwa kwamacala kwasekuqaleni kulabo abahilela izimpikiswano phakathi kwemibuso noma izimpikiswano ezibangelwa phakathi kwamanxusa nezinye izikhonzi eziphethe izikhundla eziphakeme.

Lezi zimo, nakuba zingavamile, zingaba yinkimbinkimbi kakhulu futhi zibe nomthelela. Amacala ambalwa okuqala alawula imingcele agcinwa (ngokuvamile abekwe kanye kuya kwesihlanu) kodwa ubukhulu benza ukuba eziningi zalezi zibe nzima. Ukuphikisana phakathi kwezifundazwe ngamalungelo amanzi, imingcele, noma ezinye izindaba kungahlanganisa inqwaba yobufakazi nobufakazi.

Inqubo Yenkantolo Ephakeme: Ukusuka Ezifishaneni Kuya Ezinqumweni

Lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme isivumile ukuzwa icala, kwenzeka inqubo eningiliziwe nenzima efinyelela umvuthwandaba wesinqumo esiba umthetho wezwe.

Ibhalwe Ngemifingqi

Ngokwemithetho yeNkantolo Ephakeme, umceli unesikhathi esithile sokubhala isikhashana, hhayi ukudlula amakhasi angu-50, ukuveza icala lakhe mayelana nendaba yenkantolo egunyazwe yiNkantolo. Ngemva kokudluliswa kwesicelo esifushane, omunye umnxephezeli, unikezwa isikhathi esithile sokubhala i-etacenti. Lokhu kufushane futhi akudluli ngamakhasi angu-50.

Ngaphandle kwamaqembu ahilelekile ngokuqondile kulelicala, abanye abantu abathakazelayo bangase bathathe igxathu. Amanye amaqembu anesithakazelo ecaleni, abizwa ngokuthi ama-amici – igama lesiLatini elisho "abangane" – anganikeza futhi incazelo emfushane. Lezi zikhombo ze-amicus curiae zivumela amaqembu obufundisi, izazi, izinhlangano zikahulumeni, nabanye ababoshi becala ukuba banikeze imibono yabo endleleni iNkantolo ebusa ngayo.

Amampikiswano Omlomo

Kusukela ngo - October kuya ku - December, kuqulwa izimpikiswano phakathi namasonto amabili okuqala enyanga ngayinye. Kusukela ngo - January kuya ku - April, kuqulwa izimpikiswano emasontweni amabili okugcina enyanga ngayinye.

Izimpikiswano ezivamile zithatha ihora liphelele, ngakho uhlangothi ngalunye lunemizuzu engu-30. Umceli angazibekela isikhathi sokuphikisa impikiswano ephikiswayo, okusho ukuthi zizokhuluma ngaphambi nangemva kwempikiswano yophendulayo.

Impikiswano edluliselwa ngomlomo ayiyona inkulumo ethatha ka-30. Nakuba uhlangothi ngalunye luqala ngesiqalo esingokomthetho, izimpikiswano zomlomo zihilela kakhulu abameli abaphendula imibuzo evela kumaJaji ahlobene namaphimbo abo. Lokhu kuvumela amaJaji ukuba acacise ukuqonda kwawo okungabalulekile esinqumweni. Le ngxoxo ingaba lukhuni, uma amajaji ephenya imingcele enengqondo yezimpikiswano zohlangothi ngalunye futhi ahlole izimo ezicatshangelwayo.

Ingqungquthela Nenkululeko

Khona - ke bonke abahluleli baxoxa ngamacala emihlanganweni yangasese. Le mihlangano iqhutshelwa ngasese, kungekho omabhalane bezomthetho noma izisebenzi ezikhona. Abahluleli baxoxa ngecala futhi bavote ngendlela okufanele linqunywe ngayo.

Uma izinkulumo seziphelile, uMahluleli oMkhulu uvota kuqala, futhi amaJaji ahlangeneyo avota ngokuhlela ukuba kuhambe phambili. Amavoti ayabalwa, bese kukhethwa uMahluleli ukuze abhale umbono weNkantolo. Uma uMahluleli Oyinhloko esemphakathini, ngokuvamile ayokhetha loMahluleli. Uma iJaji Elikhulu lingekho phakathi kweningi, uMahluleli omkhulu kunabo bonke ngokunokwenzeka uyokwenza ukukhetha.

Ukubhala Imibono

IJaji elibhala umbono weNkantolo kumelwe liqiniseke ukuthi liyiveza ngokufanelekile imibono yabo bonke amaJaji abavota abaningi. Lokhu kungahilela ukuxoxisana okukhulu nokubukeza njengoba umbono uqhubekeka phakathi kwamajaji. Ngezinye izikhathi amajaji ayoshintsha amavoti awo asekelwe ekucabangeni kobuthane, noma umbono ungabukezwa ukuze kuhlangatsheliswe ukukhathazeka okuphakanyiswa abahluleli abaningi.

Amajaji angaphikisana nesiphetho seningi angabhala imibono ephikisanayo. Amajaji angaphikisana naleso sinqumo angabhala umbono ongavumelaniyo. Labo abavumelana nomphumela kodwa hhayi nokucabanga kungase kubhale umbono ovumelanayo. Nakuba abaphikisani bengenawo amandla angokomthetho asheshayo, bangathonya ekuhleleni izenzakalo ezingokomthetho zesikhathi esizayo futhi ngezinye izikhathi ushintsho olusezakufikeni ekugcineni ekuchazeni umthetho.

Indlela INkantolo Ephakeme Evikela Ngayo Amalungelo Abantu Ngabodwa

INkantolo futhi iyisigelekeqe samalungelo abantu ngabanye, inquma ukuthi amaMelika avikeleka kangakanani ekuthatheni isinyathelo sikahulumeni. Lendima njengomvikeli wenkululeko yomuntu ngamunye imelela omunye wemisebenzi yeNkantolo ebaluleke kakhulu embusweni wentando yeningi waseMelika.

ISimemezelo Samalungelo Neziphendulo Zomthetho - sisekelo

Izinguquko zokuqala eziyishumi, ezibizwa ngokuthi iBill of Rights, zichaza isivikelo abantu abanaso ekuphazanyisweni uhulumeni. Incazelo yeNkantolo yokulungisa umthetho-sisekelo, ikakhulukazi leyo eseSivumelwaneni samaLungelo, ihlela isimo esingokomthetho ngokuphathelene nezenzo zikahulumeni.

Incazelo yeNkantolo Ephakeme yalezi zinguquko iye yaqala ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, yanda futhi ngezinye izikhathi yathola isilinganiso samalungelo avikelweyo. Ngezinqumo zayo, iNkantolo ichaza lokho lezi siqinisekiso zomthetho-sisekelo ezikushoyo ekusebenziseni inqubo , ngokwesibonelo, ukuthi yini ehlanganisa "ukungabi nangqondo" nokuquleka ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo sesine, ukuthi inkulumo ivikelwe yisiphi iSichibiyelo Sokuqala, nokuthi iyiphi inqubo "engaphambili" ngaphansi kweSiphendulo Sesihlanu nesashumi Nesine.

Izinqumo Zomphakathi Eziwuphawu

Kuwo wonke umlando waseMelika, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yakhipha izinqumo eziye zaguqula kakhulu isimo esingokomthetho namalungelo ezigidi zamaMelika. Lamacala aphawulayo abonisa amandla eNkantolo okuvikela amalungelo abantu nokuthuthukisa ubulungisa obulinganayo.

INkantolo iye yaba nendima ebalulekile ekuchazeni i - Exlumence Protection Claus yeSichibiyelo se - 14th, esiqinisekisa ukuthi akukho hulumeni oyophika noma imuphi umuntu ovikela imithetho ngendlela efanayo. Ngamacala akhuluma ngobandlululo lobuhlanga, ukulingana kwabobulili obufanayo, nezinye izinhlobo zokuphathwa ngokungafani, iNkantolo iye yathonya incazelo yokulingana emthethweni waseMelika.

Le nkantolo futhi iye yaba negalelo ekuchazeni amalungelo ayisisekelo angashiwonga ngokuqondile embhalweni woMthetho-sisekelo. Ngokuhlola inqubo efanelekile, iNkantolo iye yawaqaphela amalungelo enkululeko, inkululeko yomkhaya, nokwenza izinqumo zomuntu siqu okunemiphumela ejulile yenkululeko yomuntu siqu.

Amandla Avelele Ezinqumo ZeNkantolo Ephakeme

Lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme ibeka umthetho - sisekelo ophathelene nesinqumo, leso sinqumo cishe siwujuqu; izinqumo zayo zingashintshwa kuphela ngenqubo engavamile esetshenziswayo yokulungisa umthetho - sisekelo noma ngesinqumo esisha seNkantolo.

Ukukhohliswa Kwesinkwenkwezi Nokuqina Okungokomthetho

Imfundiso yokubuka idecis − isiLatin esho "ukuma ngokwezinto ezinqunyiwe"" iphethe ukuthi izinkantolo kufanele zilandele izimpawu lapho kunqunywa amacala. Lesimiso sikhuthaza ukuvumelana, ukubikezela, nokuzinza emthethweni. Uma iNkantolo Ephakeme imisa umthetho, izinkantolo eziphansi kulo lonke izwe ziyolandela wona.

Njengoba "inkantolo yokugcina," iNkantolo Ephakeme ingathatha futhi yenza izinqumo zonke izinkantolo okumelwe zilandele. Lokhu kubizwa ngokuthi ukumisa isibonelo; isibonelo esingokomthetho esizolandelwa kuzo zonke izindaba ezifanayo esikhathini esizayo. Ngokuthatha icala elihilela impikiswano eye yaholela ekwahlukaneni kwemibono ezinkantolo eziphansi, iNkantolo Ephakeme yenza isenzakalo okufanele zonke inkantolo ezweni zilandele. Lokhu kuqinisekisa ukuthi imithetho isebenza ngokulinganayo kubo bonke abantu, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi bahlalaphi.

Lapho Inkantolo Ikhipha Isahlulelo Esibi

INkantolo ingazilawula futhi izihlulele lapho iningi lamajaji liphetha ngokuthi isinqumo sangaphambili sasinqunywe ngokungafanele noma ukuthi izimo ezishintshile zidinga ukuchazwa okuhlukile.

Amajaji kumelwe alinganisele ukubaluleka kokuzinza okungokomthetho nokuncika emithethweni ekhona ngokumelene nesidingo sokulungisa amaphutha omthetho - sisekelo nokuvumelanisa umthetho nokuqonda okusontayo kobulungisa namalungelo.

Amalungelo Abalulekile Avikelwa Inkantolo Ephakeme

Izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme ziye zachaza futhi zavikela amalungelo amaningi ayisisekelo amaMelika avame ukuwathatha kalula. Ukuqonda lamalungelo kubalulekile kumninikhaya ngamunye.

Inkululeko Yokukhuluma Neyokubonakaliswa

ISichibiyelo sokuqala senkululeko yokukhuluma singelinye lamalungelo aziswa kakhulu aseMelika, futhi iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yafeza indima enkulu ekuchazeni isilinganiso sayo. INkantolo iye yaqinisekisa ukuthi iSichibiyelo Sokuqala asivikeli ukusho nje kuphela nokubhala, kodwa futhi sivikela nenkulumo engokomfanekiso, ukuziphatha okubonisayo, ngisho nezindlela ezithile zokukhuluma kwezentengiselwano.

INkantolo iqaphele futhi ukuthi isivikelo sokukhuluma asiphelele. Uhulumeni ungabeka imingcele enengqondo yesikhathi, indawo, nendlela yokukhuluma, kanye nezigaba ezithile zenkulumo − njengezinsongo zangempela, ukugqugquzela isenzo sokungabi namthetho esiseduze, nokuhlazisa (---asss) ukwamukela isivikelo esincane noma esingangeni ndawo somthetho sisekelo. Ngezinqumo zayo, iNkantolo ilinganisela ukubaluleka okuyisisekelo kokuveza inkululeko ngokumelene nezinye izithakazelo zikahulumeni ezishukumisayo.

Inkululeko Engokwenkolo

ISichibiyelo Sokuqala sinezigaba ezimbili ezihlobene nenkolo: iSimemezelo sikaClaus, esivimbela uhulumeni ekumiseni inkolo engokomthetho, ne - Free Execrect Claus, evikela amalungelo abantu okuqhuba inkolo yabo. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yachaza izigaba zombili ezisezimweni eziningi, ikhuluma ngezindaba ezisukela emthandazweni wesikole ziye ekukhululweni kwezenkolo ngokuvamile ezisebenzayo.

Lezi zinqumo zibonisa umzamo oqhubekayo weNkantolo wokulondoloza ukulinganisela okubucayi phakathi kokuvimbela ukuvunyelwa uhulumeni inkolo nokuvikela amalungelo abantu enkolweni nasekwenzeni izinto ezingokwenkolo.

Ilungelo Lokuba Wedwa

Nakuba igama elithi "privcy" lingaveli eMthethweni, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yaqaphela ilungelo lomthetho-mthetho lokuzimela elithathwe ezimweni zomuntu siqu ezithathwe ezinguqulweni eziningana. Lelilungelo liye lachazwa ukuvikela izinqumo zomuntu siqu ngomshado, ubuhlobo bomkhaya, ukuvimbela inzalo, nezinye izindaba eziyimfihlo ekuphazanyisweni uhulumeni okungadingekile.

Isilinganiso namathuba ayimfihlo alinganiselwe ahlala ekhona edingidwa ngokuqhubekayo, futhi izinqumo zeNkantolo kulendawo zisho okukhulu ngombuso womuntu ngamunye.

Isivikelo Esilinganayo Ngaphansi KoMthetho

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane seSiphendulo Esilinganayo sika Claus silokhu siyisisekelo sezinye zezinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme ezishintsha kakhulu. INkantolo iye yachaza leli lungiselelo ukuze inqabe izinhlobo ezihlukahlukene zobandlululo futhi ifune ukuba uhulumeni aphathe abantu abasendaweni efanayo.

Inkantolo iye yakhuluma ngobandlululo olusekelwe ohlwini lohlanga, ubulili, imvelaphi yobuzwe nezinye izici. Izinga lokuhlaziya le Nkantolo lixhomeke ekukhetheni izinhlanga, njengoba ihlelwa ngokwezinhlanga ezifuna kakhulu nezinye izigaba ezibukezwa ngokuphawulekayo.

Ilungelo Lokuqulwa Kwecala Okungenagwegwesi

UMthetho-sisekelo uqukethe amalungiselelo amaningi aklanyelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuqulwa kwecala elilungile, kuhlanganise nelungelo lokwelulekwa, ilungelo lokubhekana nofakazi, ilungelo lokumelana nokuzimela, isivikelo ezingozini eziphindwe kabili, nelungelo lokuqulwa kwecala. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yachaza lamalungiselelo okumisa izivikelo ezibanzi ezingokwemininingwane zabamangalelwa.

Lamalungelo abonisa isimiso esiyisisekelo sokuthi uhulumeni kumelwe ahloniphe isithunzi somuntu ngamunye nenkululeko ngisho nalapho ephishekela izinhloso ezingokomthetho zokugcinwa komthetho. Izinqumo zenqubo yobugebengu yeNkantolo zizama ukulinganisela ukugcinwa komthetho okuphumelelayo ngokuvikelwa kwamalungelo abantu ngabanye.

Isivikelo Ekucwaningeni Nokukhohlisa Okungenangqondo

ISichibiyelo sesine sivikela ekuphenyisweni okungenangqondo nasekuqubukeni, sifuna ukuba imvume isekelwe yisizathu. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yasungula umthetho omkhulu ochaza icala lapho ukuphenywa kungu "ukulinganisela," lapho kudingeka izimvume, futhi amakhambi akhona lapho uhulumeni ephula amalungelo eSichibiyelo Sesine.

Lezi zinqumo zithinta izakhamuzi nemithetho egcinwa nsuku zonke, zilawula yonke into kusukela eziteshini zezimoto kuya ekuhloleni amakhaya nasezintweni zobuchwepheshe.

Ubuhlobo Phakathi Kwezinkantolo Zomphakathi NoMbuso

ISiphakamiso VI simemezela ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo nemithetho ebekwe ngaphansi kwegunya loMthetho-sisekelo kuzoba umthetho ophakeme wezwe futhi lowo onqumayo ukuhlonipha umthetho-sisekelo nombuso. Leli ilungiselelo elibalulekile ngoba lasiza ekumiseni ububanzi bamandla eNkantolo. Lapho iNkantolo ichaza uMthetho-sisekelo, imisa imithetho engokomthetho ukuze sonke isizwe silandele.

Nakuba iNkantolo Ephakeme iyigunya lokugcina lemibuzo yomthetho - sisekelo kahulumeni, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zifeza indima ebalulekile esimisweni sokwahlulela saseMelika. Izinkantolo zoMbuso zingachaza imithetho - sisekelo yazo siqu yombuso ukuze inikeze isivikelo esikhulu kunalokho okufunwa uMthetho - sisekelo kahulumeni, nakuba zingenakuwanikeza isivikelo esincane samalungelo aqinisekisiwe uhulumeni.

Lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S. ilwela ukuthola umthombo ofanelekile noma isibonelo esisebenzayo lapho iphendula imibuzo ephikisayo yomthetho - sisekelo kahulumeni, ngezinye izikhathi iphendukela ezinkantolo eziphakeme ukuze ithole isiqondiso. Kulezozikhathi, amajaji ayahlola futhi amukele izincazelo zemithetho - sisekelo kahulumeni njengemithombo eyinhloko ukuze athole incazelo kuMthetho - sisekelo kahulumeni.

Izinselele Zamanje Nendima YeNkantolo Ephakeme

INkantolo Ephakeme iyaqhubeka ibhekana nezinselele ezintsha njengoba umphakathi ushintsha futhi uthuthukisa ezobuchwepheshe. Impikiswano yokuthi amaFramers awasoze acabanga ukuthi angakwazi ukuzibona ngasese (kusukela ku-athom yezobuchwepheshe kuya kubunjiniyela bezakhi zofuzo kuya ebukhalini bokuzenzela) / ukuhlanganisa iNkantolo ukuba isebenzise izimiso zomthetho-sisekelo ezindala ezimweni ezintsha.

IJaji eliyinhloko uMarshall laveza inselele iNkantolo Ephakeme ebhekene nayo ekulondolozeni uhulumeni okhululekile ngokuphawula: "Akumelwe nanini sikhohlwe ukuthi kuwumthetho-sisekelo esiwuchazayo . . .. ohloselwe ukukhuthazela iminyaka eminingi ezayo, futhi ngenxa yalokho, ukuvumelana nezinkathazo ezihlukahlukene zezindaba zabantu." Lokhu kuphawula kusesebenza namuhla njengalapho kwenziwa.

Ukulinganisela Amalungelo Nezithakazelo

Amacala amaningi anzima kakhulu phambi kweNkantolo Ephakeme ahilela izingxabano phakathi kwamalungelo ancintisanayo noma phakathi kwamalungelo abantu nezinzuzo zikahulumeni.

Abantu abacabangelayo bangaphikisana ngokuthi ukulinganisela okufanele kukuphi, okuyisizathu esenza izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme ezindabeni eziphikisanayo zibangele ukungavumelani okukhulu nempikiswano yomphakathi.

Imithetho yequmrhu yomthetho wequmrhu

Ngokungafani namagatsha kahulumeni akhethiwe, iNkantolo Ephakeme ayitholi gunya ngokhetho oluthandwayo kodwa kuMthetho-sisekelo nakumthetho. Umthetho weNkantolo uxhomeke ekwamukeni komphakathi indima yayo njengommeli ongathathi hlangothi onquma amacala asekelwe ezimisweni ezingokomthetho kunokukhetha kwezombangazwe.

Ukulondoloza lobu ngokomthetho kudinga ukuba iNkantolo ichaze izinqumo zayo ngemibono enengqondo, ihloniphe isibonelo kuyilapho iqhubeka ikulungele ushintsho oludingekile, futhi ibonise ukuthi izincazelo zayo zisekelwe embhalweni womthetho - sisekelo, emlandweni, nasesimisweni kunokuba ichaze imibono yomuntu siqu yabahluleli ngabanye.

Indlela Izakhamuzi Ezingahlanganyela Ngayo NeNkantolo Ephakeme

Nakuba abantu abaningi baseMelika bengeke balwe necala phambi kweNkantolo Ephakeme, kunezindlela eziningi izakhamuzi ezingahileleka ngazo eNkantolo nomsebenzi wayo.

Ukuhlala Unolwazi

Izinqumo zeNkantolo ePhakeme zithinta cishe zonke izici zokuphila kwaseMelika, kusukela ezikoleni esifunda kuzo kuya ezindaweni zemisebenzi lapho sisebenzela khona ukuzenzela izinto zethu siqu emakhaya ethu. Ukuhlala sazi ngezinqumo zeNkantolo nokuqonda ukuthi zisho ukuthini kuyingxenye ebalulekile yokuba singenele ubuhlali.

Iwebhusayithi esemthethweni yeNkantolo Ephakeme ikhipha imibono, amaphepha adluliselwe empikiswano nezinye izinto ezivumela izakhamuzi ezithakazelayo ukuba zilandele umsebenzi weNkantolo. Izinhlangano eziningi zomthetho nezikhangiso zezindaba zinikeza ukuhlaziywa nokukhulumela ezinqumweni zeNkantolo Ephakeme, okwenza izindaba ezinzima zifinyeleleke kakhulu ezibukelweni ezivamile.

Ukuhlanganyela Enqubweni Yentando Yeningi

Nakuba amajaji eNkantolo Ephakeme engakhethwa, akhethwa nguMongameli futhi aqinisekiswe iSigele (‘ zombili izikhulu ezikhethiwe. ’) Izakhamuzi zingaveza amazwi azo ngokukhipha izimemezelo zokwahlulela ngokuthintana nabaphathi bazo futhi zihlanganyele ezingxoxweni zomphakathi ngezimfanelo namafilosofi okwahlulela abaduni.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, ngenxa yokuthi izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme zingaqedwa ukuncishiswa komthetho - sisekelo, izakhamuzi zingasekela izinguquko lapho zikholelwa ukuthi iNkantolo iye yawuchaza kabi uMthetho - sisekelo. Nakuba le nqubo yokulungisa inzima ngamabomu, ihlala iwucwaningo olubalulekile emandleni okwahlulela.

Ukusekela Izinhlangano Ezingokomthetho

Lezi zinhlangano eziningi zihlanganyela emazwini angokomthetho aklanyelwe ukuletha imibuzo ebalulekile engokomthetho - sisekelo phambi kweNkantolo Ephakeme.

Izakhamuzi zingayisekela le mizamo ngeminikelo, ngemisebenzi yokuzithandela, noma ngokusebenza njengezikhulu ezisecaleni lokuhlola amacala.

Ukuqonda Amalungelo Akho: Izinhlelo Ezisebenzayo

Ukwazi amalungelo akho omthetho - sisekelo kubalulekile, kodwa ukuqonda indlela yokusebenzisa nokuwavikela kubalulekile ngokufanayo.

Lapho Uhlanganyela Nomthetho Ophoqelelwe

ISichibiyelo sesine, sesihlanu neseSisithupha sinikeza isivikelo esibalulekile lapho ubhekene nokugcinwa komthetho. Unelungelo lokuthula, ilungelo lokwenqaba ukuphenya ezimweni eziningi, nelungelo lommeli uma uboshwa. Ukuqonda lamalungelo nendlela yokuwagcizelela ngenhlonipho kungawenza umehluko omkhulu ekuvikeleni izithakazelo zakho.

Emsebenzini

Isivikelo somthetho-sisekelo ekucwaseni, sihlangene nemithetho kahulumeni namalungelo abantu kahulumeni, sinikeza izivikelo ezibalulekile emsebenzini.

Ezikoleni Nasezintweni Ezingezona Ezibalulekile

Abafundi balondoloza amalungelo amaningi omthetho-sisekelo lapho besesikoleni, nakuba lamalungelo engase alinganiswe nezithakazelo ezingokomthetho zezikole ekulondolozeni ukuhleleka nokunikeza imfundo. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yakhuluma ngezindaba ezisukela enkulumweni yabafundi kuya emazwini angokwenkolo kuya ekuhloleni abafundi kanye nezinto zabo.

Ezindaweni Zomphakathi

ISichibiyelo Sokuqala sivikela ilungelo lakho lokukhuluma, ukubhikisha, nokuveza imibono yakho obala, ukuvumela isikhathi esilinganiselwe, indawo, nendlela oziphatha ngayo. Ukuqonda ubukhulu balamalungelo kwenza izakhamuzi zikwazi ukuhlanganyela ngokuphumelelayo enkulumweni yeningi nasempikiswaneni yentando yeningi.

Amalungelo Abalulekile Wonke AmaMelika Kumelwe Awazi

Nakuba uMthetho - sisekelo uvikela amalungelo amaningi, ezinye izivikelo eziyisisekelo zibaluleke ngokukhethekile ukuba isakhamuzi ngasinye siziqonde:

  • [ Inkululeko yokukhuluma:[ Isichibiyeli sokuqala sivikela ilungelo lakho lokuveza imibono yakho, ukugxeka uhulumeni, nokuhlanganyela enkulumweni yezombangazwe ngaphandle kokwesaba ukucusumbulwa noma ukuziphindiselela kukahulumeni.
  • [ Inkululeko yenkolo:[ Unelungelo lokuqhuba inkolo yakho ngokukhululekile futhi ukhululeke emikhosini yenkolo ebekwe uhulumeni.
  • Amalungelo ezindaba zomuntu siqu: Nakuba ingashiwonga ngokuqondile kuMthetho-sisekelo, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yawaqaphela amalungelo ezindaba zomthetho-mthethweni avikela izinqumo zomuntu siqu nezici eziseduze zokuphila ekuphazanyisweni uhulumeni.
  • Isivikelo esiPhansi koMthetho: Isichibiyeli seshumi nane sidinga ukuba uhulumeni aphathe abantu abasendaweni efanayo futhi anqabe ubandlululo olusekelwe ngokohlanga, ubulili, nezinye izici ezivikelwe.
  • [ Eqenjini lecala elilungile: Uma ubekwa icala lobugebengu, unelungelo kummeli, ukumangalela ofakazi bakho, ukuhlala uthule, nokuqulwa icala.
  • Isivikelo sokulwa nokuhlola okungenangqondo: ISichibiyelo sesine sikuvikela ekuphenyeni nokwethuka okungacabangeli kukahulumeni, okuvame ukufuna ukuba ukugcinwa komthetho kuthole isiqinisekiso esisekelwe enkolelweni okungenzeka.
  • Ifanele inqubo elindelekile: Izichibiyelo zesihlanu nezeshumi nane ziqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni ngeke akuncishe ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla ngaphandle kwenqubo efanele yomthetho.
  • [ Isivikelo ekuziphindiseleni ngokwakho: Awunakuphoqelelwa ukuba ufakazele wena ekwahluleleni.
  • [[[Umthetho:0] Ilungelo elulekweni: Uma ungakwazi ukukhokhela ummeli ecaleni lobugebengu, kumelwe unikezelwe.
  • Inkululeko ye-Press: ISichibiyelo sokuqala sivikela umbiko ekucusumbuleni kukahulumeni futhi senza izintatheli zikwazi ukubika izindaba zokukhathazeka komphakathi.
  • [[[UMTL:0] Unelungelo lokuhlanganisa nokunxusa: Unelungelo lokubuthana ngokuthula nokunxusa uhulumeni ukuba alungise izikhalo.
  • [[INTLOBO: 0] Isivikelo ekumelaneni nonya nesijeziso esingavamile: ISichibiyelo seNguqulo Sesishiyagalombili sivimbela ibheyili ephakeme, izihlawuliso ezeqile, nesijeziso sonya nesingavamile.

Ithonya LeNkantolo Ephakeme Ekuphileni Kwansuku Zonke

Izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme zithinta abantu baseMelika ngezindlela eziningi, ngokuvamile ezindaweni esingase singaziqapheli ngokushesha njengeziwumthetho - sisekelo.

Imfundo

Izinqumo zeNkantolo ziye zaguqula isimiso semfundo ezindabeni kusukela esikoleni kuya ekukhulumeni kwabafundi kuya ezenzweni zenkolo ezikoleni. Lezi zinqumo zithinta okuhlangenwe nakho kwemfundo yezigidi zabafundi nezimiso ezingasetshenziswa izikole.

Ukunakekelwa kwempilo

INkantolo Ephakeme iye yakhuluma ngezindaba eziningi ezihlobene nezokwelapha, kuhlanganise nomthetho-mthetho wezokwelapha, amalungelo okuzala, kanye nezinqumo zokuphela kokuphila. Lezi zinqumo zisho okukhulu ngokuzinqumela komuntu siqu nokuthola ukwelashwa.

Ubuchwepheshe Nezindaba Zomuntu Siqu

Njengoba ubuchwepheshe bushintsha, iNkantolo Ephakeme kumelwe ichaze imithetho engokomthetho eyabhalwa emakhulwini eminyaka adlule ngenxa yezinto ezintsha zanamuhla.Icala elihilela ukuphenya ucingo, ukulandelela i - GPS, nokuthungatha izinto zobuchwepheshe lifuna ukuba iNkantolo ilinganise izimiso ezingokwesiko zeSimemezelo Sesine nezinto ezintsha zobuchwepheshe.

Ukusakaza Amalungelo

INkantolo Ephakeme inendima ebalulekile ekuvikeleni amalungelo okuvota nasekuqinisekiseni ukuthi kunezinqumo ezifanelekile.

Ukulungisa Izomnotho

Incazelo yeNkantolo yamandla oMkhandlu wokulawula ezentengiselwano zamazwe namanye amalungiselelo omthetho-sisekelo ithinta isimiso sezomnotho, umthetho wezebhizinisi, kanye nokulinganisela kwamandla phakathi kohulumeni bakahulumeni bakahulumeni nohulumeni ezindabeni zezomnotho.

Ukubheka Phambili: Inqubo Eqhubekayo YeNkantolo Ephakeme Yokuziphendukela Kwemvelo

INkantolo Ephakeme izoqhubeka iguqula njengoba amajaji amasha ehlanganyela ebhentshini, kuphakama imibuzo emisha engokomthetho, futhi umphakathi ushintsha. Ukuqonda indima yeNkantolo, ukuhlonipha ukubaluleka kwayo kokumiswa, futhi ukucabanga ngezinqumo zayo kuyimithwalo yemfanelo ebalulekile yokuba yizakhamuzi embusweni wentando yeningi.

Ngokwesiko iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yasho okokugcina ngencazelo yomthetho - sisekelo, engashintsha imibuso kahulumeni futhi ishintshe izinga lesivikelo abantu abanalo esinyatheloni sikahulumeni.

Ngokuqonda indlela iNkantolo Ephakeme esebenza ngayo, indlela amacala afinyelela ngayo eNkantolo, nendlela izinqumo zeNkantolo ezithinta ngayo amalungelo abantu, amaMelika angayiqonda kangcono indima yamajaji esimisweni somthetho-mthetho wethu. Lolwazi lunika izakhamuzi amandla okusebenzisa amalungelo azo ngokuphumelelayo, ukuba zihlanganyele ngokunengqondo ezimpikiswaneni eziphathelene nezindaba zomthetho-sisekelo, futhi lugcine uhulumeni enesibopho sokulandisa ngezimiso zomthetho-sisekelo.

Imithombo Yemfundo Ethé Xaxa

Kulabo abanesithakazelo sokufunda okwengeziwe ngeNkantolo Ephakeme nomthetho - sisekelo, kunemithombo eminingi:

  • I-website esemthethweni yeNkantolo inikeza ukufinyelela kwemibono, amaphuzu adluliselwa ngomlomo, kanye nokwaziswa ngezinqubo zeNkantolo.
  • Isikhungo somthetho-mthetho wesizwe inikeza imithombo yemfundo ngomthetho-sisekelo nomthetho-sisekelo.
  • Izincwadi ezingokomthetho nezinkonzo zezindaba zinikeza ukuhlaziywa kwezinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme nalokho okushiwo yizo.
  • SCOTUSlog inikeza ukuhlanganiswa okuningiliziwe kwamacala aseNkantolo Ephakeme nokuhlaziywa kochwepheshe bezomthetho.
  • Imitholampilo yezomthetho nezinhlangano zosizo ezingokomthetho zinganikeza usizo ngemibuzo engokomthetho kanye nokumelelwa kwemithetho.

Isiphetho: INkantolo Ephakeme Namalungelo Akho

INkantolo Ephakeme imisa njengomphathi wamalungelo omthetho-sisekelo nomtolili wokugcina woMthetho-sisekelo. Izinqumo zayo zilawula indawo engokomthetho, zichaza isilinganiso senkululeko yomuntu ngamunye, futhi zimise imingcele yamandla kahulumeni. Ukusuka enkululekweni yokukhuluma kuya ekuvikelekeni okulinganayo, kusukela kumalungelo ezindaba zomuntu siqu kuya ekuqulweni ngokulunga, izinqumo zeNkantolo zithinta wonke umuntu waseMelika.

Ukuqonda indima yeNkantolo Ephakeme esimisweni sethu sobulungisa akuyona nje indlela yemfundo kuphela, kodwa ulwazi olubalulekile kunoma ubani ofuna ukwazi amalungelo akhe futhi ahlanganyele ngokuphumelelayo ekubusweni ngentando yeningi kwaseMelika. Amandla eNkantolo ukuchaza uMthetho-sisekelo nokubukeza izenzo zamagatsha kahulumeni kwenza kube yinhlolo - nkulu egunyeni likahulumeni nomvikeli obalulekile wenkululeko yomuntu ngamunye.

Njengezakhamuzi, sinelungelo nomthwalo wemfanelo wokuqonda indlela iNkantolo Ephakeme esebenza ngayo, ukuhlala sazisiwe ngezinqumo zayo, nokuhlanganyela ngokucabangela ngemibuzo engokomthetho-mthetho. Ngokwenza kanjalo, sihlonipha umbono wabaHluleli abakha uhulumeni wemithetho, hhayi wabantu, futhi sisiza ekuqinisekiseni ukuthi isithembiso sobulungisa obulinganayo ngaphansi komthetho sihlala siyinto engokoqobo kubo bonke abantu baseMelika.

INkantolo Ephakeme izoqhubeka ibhekene nezinselele ezintsha futhi iphendule imibuzo eyinkimbinkimbi njengoba umphakathi uguquka. Kodwa indima yayo eyinhloko (ukuchaza uMthetho-sisekelo), ukuvikela amalungelo abantu ngabanye, nokuqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni usebenza ngaphakathi kwemingcele yomthetho-sisekelo) ihlala ikhona. Ngokuqonda lendima namalungelo eNkantolo ayivikelayo, wonke umuntu waseMelika angahlonyiselwa kangcono ukusebenzisa inkululeko yakhe, avikele amalungelo akhe, futhi ahlanganyele emsebenzini oqhubekayo wentando yeningi.