Ukusungulwa Kwezindinganiso Zobufakazi Esimisweni Esingokomthetho

Isimiso somthetho saseMelika sisebenza ngesisekelo sokuthi iqiniso kumelwe liphishekele ngenqubo ehlelwe kahle yobufakazi nokuhlola. Nokho, indinganiso leyo bufakazi obulinganiswa ngayo ishintsha ngokuphawulekayo kuye ngokuthi icala liyicala lomphakathi noma liyicala. Lezizindinganiso azinakuzikhethela; zibonisa izindinganiso eziyisisekelo nezigxobo ezidlalwayo ohlotsheni ngalunye lwenqubo. Kubafundi bomthetho, abameli, nanoma ubani ofuna ukuqonda ukuthi lilawulwa kanjani ubulungisa, uqonda umehluko phakathi kwemikhawulo esobala emacala omphakathi nawecala lobugebengu kubalulekile.

Isimiso somthetho sihlukaniswa saba izinhlobo ezimbili eziyinhloko zamacala: umbango nobugebengu. Uhlobo ngalunye lusebenza ngaphansi kwemithetho ehlukene futhi, okubaluleke kakhulu, lunezindinganiso zalo zobufakazi okumelwe zihlangatshezwe ukuze icala liphumelele. Ukuqonda lokhu kungafani kubalulekile kubafundi, othisha, nanoma ubani onesithakazelo emthethweni, njengoba behlela yonke into kusukela ekuzameni kwecala kuya ekugcineni komphumela wempikiswano.

Ukuqonda Umehluko: Icala Lobugebengu

Ngaphambi kokuba uhlole izindinganiso zobufakazi ngokwazo, kubalulekile ukuqonda isimo esiyisisekelo samacala omphakathi nawezigebengu. lezizigaba ezimbili zifeza izinjongo ezihlukene esimisweni somthetho futhi zinemiphumela ehlukene kakhulu ngamaqembu ahilelekile.

Icala Lasemzabalazweni: Izingxabano Phakathi Kwezigaba Zangasese

Izenzakalo zombango zihlanganisa izingxabano phakathi kwabantu, amabhizinisi, noma izinhlangano. Eqenjini lomphakathi, elinye iqembu (ummangalelwa) liletha icala kwelinye iqembu (ummangalelwa) elifuna ikhambi elingokomthetho, ngokuvamile ngendlela yokukhokha noma ukwenza okuthile. Izimo ezivamile zecala zomphakathi zihlanganisa izingxabano zesivumelwano, ukulimaza komuntu siqu, izingxabano zempahla, nezindaba zomkhaya ezinjengesahlukaniso nelungelo lokugcina abantwana. Impikiswano eyinhloko enkantolo iwukuthi ummangalelwa unecala elingokomthetho yini ngengozi emangalelwe yisikhulu sesikhulu sesizwe. Ngenxa yokuthi lezi zigxobo zihilela ukukhokhwa kwemali kunenkululeko, umthwalo womuntu siqu uphansi kunezecala lomthetho.

Amacala Ezigebengu: Amaphutha Awo Amelene NoMbuso

Icala lobugebengu lihlanganisa izenzo ezibhekwa njengeziphambeko ezimelene nombuso, umphakathi, noma umphakathi uwonke. Esongeni lobugebengu, uhulumeni (obekwa umshushisi) uletha amacala kummangalelwa omangalelwe ngokumenzela icala. Imiphumela yecala lobugebengu ingaba mikhulu, kuhlanganise nokuboshwa, ukukhokhwa, ukujeziswa, isigwebo sentambo, isigwebo sentambo. Ngenxa yokuthi inkululeko nedumela lommangalelwa kusesiphazamini, isimiso somthetho sibeka indinganiso enkulu kakhulu yobufakazi enkantolo. Umbuso uthwala umthwalo wokufaka icala lommangalelwa, futhi ummangalelwa ubhekwa njengongenacala kuze kuboniswe ngenye indlela.

Izindinganiso Zobufakazi: Izikhala Ezimbili Ezihlukile

Umehluko ophawulekayo phakathi kwamacala omphakathi nawobugebengu usendinganisweni yobufakazi obudingekayo. Indinganiso yobufakazi ichaza izinga lokuqiniseka komthumeli othola iqiniso (jaji noma abahluleli) kumelwe athathe kuqala ngaphambi kokuba anqume ukuthi kulungile iqembu elilodwa. Lezi zindinganiso ezimbili eziyinhloko zibuningi ngobufakazi futhi zingenakungatshazwa.

Ukuqaphelisisa Ubufakazi: Izindinganiso Zomphakathi

Ezimweni zomphakathi, indinganiso yobufakazi yaziwa ngokuthi "ubufakazi obuqanjiwe". Lendinganiso ifuna ukuba omunye umuntu abonise ukuthi ukuzisholo kwakhe kuyiqiniso kakhulu kunangendlela engekho. Uma kusebenza, lokhu kusho ukuthi ubufakazi kumelwe bubonise ukuthi kunethuba elikhulu elingaphezu kuka-50% lokuthi iphuzu liyasebenza. Uma isikali sobulungisa sivumelana ngisho nakancane nomphandle, umthathi-nye uyanqoba. Ngezinye izikhathi lendinganiso ichazwa ngokuthi "amathuba angu-51%" noma "ngokulindelekile kakhulu"

Indinganiso yangaphambi kokuhlola ibonisa iqiniso lokuthi amacala omphakathi ahilela ukuphikisana ngemali noma impahla kunokuba kube yinkululeko. Kuwumnyango ophansi uma kuqhathaniswa nendinganiso yobugebengu, kodwa akuwona onzima. Umkhohlisi kumelwe anikeze ubufakazi obunokwethenjelwa futhi aqinisekise ukuthi inguquko yezehlakalo ziyiqiniso. Ngokwesibonelo, endabeni yokulimala komuntu siqu, ummangalelwa kumelwe abonise ukuthi kungenzeka kakhulu ukuthi ukunganaki kommangalelwa kubangele ukulimala. Uma ubufakazi bulingana nobunzima obungu-50-50 (a50-50) umbango.

Ukhiyo oluthathayo: Ngaphansi kwendinganiso engaphambili, i-pasttiff ayidingi ukuqinisekisa isimo sayo ngokuqiniseka okuphelele. Badinga nje ukukhomba isikali esicacile ukuze babonise.

Ngalé Kokungabaza Okunengqondo: Isimiso Sesigebengu

Ezicabeni zobugebengu, indinganiso yobufakazi iphakeme kakhulu: "Ngaphandle kokungabaza okunengqondo." Lendinganiso ifuna ukuba ubufakazi obunikezwayo bushiye abahluleli bejaji bengangabazi lutho ngokuphathelene necala lommangalelwa. Ukungabaza okunengqondo akukhona ukungabaza okuqagelayo noma okucatshangelwayo, kodwa ukungabaza okusekelwe ekucabangeni nasekucabangeni okusekelweni kobufakazi noma ukuntula kwabo. Uma kukhona incazelo enengqondo yobufakazi obuvumelana nobumsulwa bommangalelwa, ijaji kumelwe likhulule.

Lendinganiso ephakeme ibonisa imiphumela engathi sína engavela ekuvumeni kobugebengu. Ngenxa yokuthi umbuso ufuna ukuncisha umuntu inkululeko yakhe, noma ngisho nokuphila kwakhe, isimiso somthetho sifuna cishe ukuba nokwenzeka ngaphambi kokuvumela ukuncishwa okunjalo. INkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S. ichaze lendinganiso ngokuthi "i"bhegi" isimiso somthetho wobugebengu waseMelika, esisekelwe embonweni wokuthi kungcono kakhulu ukuvumela umuntu onecala ukuba ahambe ngokukhululekile kunokuba abophe isigwebo. Isilinganiso seBlackstone, isilinganiso samakhulu eminyaka esingokomthetho, sidume ngokuthi "kungcono ukuba abantu abayishumi abanecala lokubaleka kunokuhlupheka umuntu ongenacala"

Ukhiye: [ Ngaphandle kokungabaza okunengqondo akuyona izibalo eziqinisekile (100%) kodwa iyindinganiso ephakeme kakhulu yobufakazi obaziwa emthethweni. Kudinga ukuqiniseka kokuziphatha nokuqiniseka okuqinile necala.

Umthwalo Wobufakazi: Ubani Onesisindo?

Okuhlobene kakhulu nendinganiso yobufakazi umthwalo wobufakazi, obunquma ukuthi yiliphi iqembu elinomthwalo wokuveza ubufakazi nokuqinisekisa umthumeli weqiniso. Ukwebiwa komthwalo kuchaza inqubo ebanzi yendlela amacala akhiwa ngayo futhi ahlolwe ngayo.

Umthwalo Ezilahlweni Zezakhamuzi

Ezimweni zomphakathi, umthwalo wobufakazi uxhomeke kummangaleli, okumelwe anikeze ubufakazi obanele ukuze asekele iziphakamiso zabo. Ummangalelwa kumelwe afakazele isici ngasinye sesizathu sabo ngokuqapha ubufakazi. Lokhu kusho ukuthi ummangalelwa akumelwe anikeze ubufakazi obukhona kuphela, kodwa futhi kumelwe anqobe noma ibuphi ubufakazi obunikeza obuphambene. Nokho, ummangalelwa angathwala umthwalo wokuqinisekisa ukuthi isivikelo siyavuma, njengokunganakiwe noma umthetho wokuvinjelwa, ngobufakazi obuqanjiwe.

Umthwalo Ezicathulweni Zezigebengu

Ezinkantolo zobugebengu, umthwalo wobufakazi uxhomeke enkantolo, okumelwe ifakazele icala lommangalelwa ngaphandle kokungabaza okunengqondo. Lomthwalo awushintshi kummangalelwa; ummangalelwa ubhekwa njengongenacala phakathi nokuqulwa kwecala futhi akudingeki ukuba anikeze ubufakazi. Umshushisi kumelwe abonise zonke izici zecala elimangalelwe ngaphandle kokungabaza okunengqondo. Uma ummangalelwa ehluleka ukuhlangabezana nale nkinga, ummangalelwa kumelwe akhululwe. ISiphetho sesihlanu sokuvikela ekuzibekeleni ngokwakhe ukuncishwa kwecala ngokuvumela ummangalelwa ukuba ahlale athule ngaphandle kokungabaza.

umehluko obalulekile: Ukuzivikela kokwamukeleka ezicabeni zobugebengu, njengehlanya noma ukuzibeka komuntu ngokwakhe, ezinye izifundazwe zibeka umthwalo kummangalelwa ukuze zibonise lezizivikelo ngokuqashelwa kobufakazi. Nokho, lokhu akuwushiyi umthwalo wokugcina wokubonakalisa icala, ohlala nomshushisi.

Izinhlobo Zobufakazi Nemithetho Engenakuphikiswa

Izinhlobo ezihlukahlukene zobufakazi zingasetshenziswa kokubili emacaleni omphakathi nawobugebengu, kodwa ukufaneleka kwawo nokungalingani kungahluka kakhulu ngenxa yezigxobo ezihlukahlukene nemithetho ehilelekile.

Ubufakazi Emacala Omphakathi: Ukungavumelani Nemibono Ehlukahlukene

Izindaba zombango zivame ukuvumela inqwaba yobufakazi, obubonisa izigxobo eziphansi nesidingo sokuxazulula izingxabano ngokuphumelelayo. I-Federal Rules of Evidence, elawula imicimbi yomphakathi kahulumeni, ithatha indlela ekhululekile yokungaguquguquki. Ubufakazi abunakungakholeki uma bufanelekile futhi bungakhishwa ngenye indlela ngemithetho ethile. Izinhlobo zobufakazi obuvame ukusetshenziswa ezimweni zomphakathi zihlanganisa:

  • ubufakazi obungabhaliwe:[ Ama-intract, ama-imeyili, amarekhodi ezokwelapha, kanye namarekhodi ebhizinisi ngokuvamile kuyimbangela yezingxabano zomphakathi.
  • ubufakazi obuyi-odoli: ubufakazi bobufakazi obuvela kofakazi bangempela nofakazi ababonisayo ngokuvamile buvunyelwe.
  • Imibono engathi i- I-Expert: ezimweni ezihilela ulwazi lobuchwepheshe noma olukhethekile `njengezezobuchwepheshe noma imfanelo yomkhiqizo) ofakazi abangochwepheshe basetshenziswa njalo ukusiza amajaji ukuba aqonde izindaba eziyinkimbinkimbi. [ Indinganiso elawula ukubonakala kobufakazi obungochwepheshe ezinkantolo zikahulumeni.
  • izindlebe ezingezona ezivamile: Nakuba amahemuhemu (izinkulumo ezingaphandle zomthetho) enikezwayo ngeqiniso lendaba avamile ukubonakala, izenzakalo zomphakathi zixhomeke emalini eminingi engekho, njengemibhalo yebhizinisi, ukuvuma kweqembu elimelene nayo, kanye nezinkulumo zokwelapha.

Ubufakazi Emacaleni Ezelelesi: Imithetho Eqinile

Amacala ezigebengu anemithetho eqinile ngokuphathelene nobufakazi, eklanyelwe ukuvikela amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo ommangalelwa nokuqinisekisa ukuthembeka kobufakazi obusetshenziselwa ukubeka isigwebo. Imingcele eyisisekelo ihlanganisa:

  • umthetho ongathi: Ubufakazi obutholakele bephulwa kweyesine, eyesihlanu, noma eyesi-6] njengeziphendulo ezivela ekufuneni okungekho emthethweni noma ekuvumeni izono okuphoqelelwe, (ukuvuma) ngokuvamile akunakwenzeka. Lo mthetho usebenza njengesithiyo ekuziphatheni okubi kwamaphoyisa.
  • Ubufakazi obuphathekayo: Izikhali, imilaliso, amasampula, kanye nobunye ubufakazi obungokoqobo kumele buqoqwe, bugcinwe, futhi bucaciswe ngokwezinqubo eziqinile ze-chester-obthrash.
  • Ubufakazi bokufakaza: Izinqubo zofakazi bokuzibonela zicubungulwa kakhulu ukuze kuthathwe izinkanuko. Izinkantolo zingakhipha izikhombo eziyimiphumela yezinqubo ezisikisela ubulili ngokungadingekile.
  • Ukuvuma izono:[ Ukuvuma izono kumelwe kube okuvolontiweyo futhi kutholakale ngokuvumelana [no-Miranda v. Arizona[. Uma umsolwa esejele futhi engalulekwanga kahle ngamalungelo awo, ukuvuma okulandelayo kunganqandwa.
  • izindlebe zingezwani ezithi zilinganiselwe:[ Icala lobugebengu lisebenzisa imithetho yenzwabethi ngokuqinile kakhulu, ikakhulukazi ngenxa yezinkulumo zobufakazi, ngenxa yeSiphendu seSithandathu, esinika ummangalelwa ilungelo lokubhekana nofakazi abangemthetho.

Izizathu Eziwusizo Zezindinganiso Zobufakazi Ezihlukahlukene

Ukwehluka kwezindinganiso zobufakazi kuveza imiphumela ebalulekile yokuthi amacala aqulwa futhi avikelwe kanjani enkantolo.

Ezimweni zomphakathi, indinganiso yangaphambi komthetho ivumela abakhohlisi ukuba baphishekele izinkulumo ezingase zisekelwe ubufakazi obuncane. Lomnyango ophansi ukhuthaza ukuxabana ngokunikezana nomthetho nangokulungisa, ngisho noma ubufakazi bungaqedi. Abamangalelwa baveza ukuthi bangalahlekelwa icala ngisho noma ubufakazi bungahambisani nabo. Lokhu kuvame ukuholela ekuxazululeni izingxoxo, njengoba ingozi yesinqumo esibi ingaba yiqiniso ngisho nalapho ummangalelwa ekholelwa ukuthi banecala eliqinile.

Ezimweni zobugebengu, indinganiso ebanzi ebanzi edlulayo iveza isivikelo esinamandla kubamangalelwa. Umshushisi kumele anikeze ubufakazi obubonisa ukuthi akunasizathu sokungabaza okunengqondo, okuyinselele enkulu ezimweni eziningi. La mabutho avamile abashushisi ukuba bakhethe kakhulu ekuletheni amacala, aqinisekise ukuthi amacala aphethe ubufakazi obuqinile kuphela aqhubekela phambili. Kubamangalelwa, indinganiso ephakeme inikeza ithuba elibalulekile lokubekela inselele icala lomshushisi impikiswano, ngisho nalapho ubufakazi bubonakala bunamandla.

Isibonelo sezwe sangempela: Icala lika-O.J. Simpson liwubonisa kahle umehluko. USimpson wakhululwa ecaleni lakhe lobugebengu ngoba abahluleli babenokungabaza okunengqondo ngobufakazi, kodwa watholakala enecala lokuqulwa kwecala likahulumeni elilandelayo ngaphansi kwendinganiso yangaphambi komthetho. Ubufakazi obufanayo obabalula ukubeka icala lobugebengu banele ukubeka icala lomthetho.

Imiphumela Yesiyalo: Okusekuthatheni

Ukuqonda lemiphumela kusiza ekuchazeni ukuthi kungani izindinganiso zobufakazi zihluke kangaka.

  • Isinqumo seCivil: ngokuvamile siphumela ekukhokheleni imali (amafa) noma ekutholeni usizo olulinganayo njengokwenza okuthile (ucela umbambi wokwenza okuthile) noma umyalo (uyala iqembu ukuba liyeke ukwenza okuthile). Ukubeka icala lomphakathi akuphumeli ekuboshweni noma ekulahlekelweni kwenkululeko, nakuba izijeziso ezingokwezimali zingabekwa.
  • Isinqumo esithathekayo: singaholela ekuboshweni, ekuhlawulisweni, ekuhlolweni, ekusebenzeni komphakathi, noma kwezinye izijeziso ezibonisa ubungako bobugebengu. Icala lobugebengu futhi linemiphumela eqinisekisiwe, njengokulahlekelwa amalungelo okuvota, ubunzima bokuthola umsebenzi, nehlazo emphakathini. Ezimweni eziyinhloko, isijeziso esiphelele singatholakala.

Umehluko ezigxotsheni uchaza ukuthi kungani indinganiso yobugebengu iphakeme kangaka. INhlangano inqume ukuthi kungcono ukuzifaka engozini yokukhulula umuntu onecala kunokuba ufake umuntu ongenacala engozini yokubopha umuntu ongenacala. Ezicabeni zomphakathi, lapho kuhileleke imali kuphela, indinganiso ephansi ibhekwa njengeyamukelekayo ngoba imiphumela yephutha ayinzima kakhulu.

Okwenza Ukuqonda Izindinganiso Zobufakazi Kubaluleke

Ukuqonda umehluko wezindinganiso zobufakazi phakathi kwecala lomphakathi nelezephulamthetho kubalulekile ekuqondiseni imingcele yezomthetho. Lokhu kuhlukanisa akuthinti nje kuphela indlela amacala akhiwa futhi ashiwo ngayo kodwa futhi nemiphumela engaba khona kulabo abahilelekile. Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ungumfundi, uthisha, noma uchwepheshe wezomthetho, kubalulekile ukuba uqonde le miqondo ukuze uqonde umthetho.

Kulabo abafunda umthetho, lezindinganiso ziyisisekelo esibonakala cishe kuzo zonke izici zomthetho. Kubaphathi bebhizinisi nabantu ngabanye, ukuqonda izindinganiso kunganikeza izinqumo ngokuthi kufanele yini iphishekele impikiswano, ukuthi ungabuqoqa kanjani ubufakazi, nokuthi yini okumelwe ilindelwe enqubweni engokomthetho. Indinganiso ephansi yomphakathi isho ukuthi ngisho necala eliphansi lingaphumelela, kuyilapho indinganiso ephakeme yobugebengu inikeza isivikelo esibalulekile kulabo abamangalelwa ngobugebengu.

Ukuze ufunde ngokuqhubekayo ngalendaba, cabangela imithombo ehlolayo Cornell Legin Information Institute’s Evidence phejini le-, enikeza i-etasktial disc nemithetho. Ngaphezu kwalokho, i-website . izinkantolo [[FLT:] zinikeza izincazelo ezicacile zezindlela zomphakathi nezobugebengu. Ukuncibilika kakhulu kuyifilosofi esekelwe ezindinganisweni zobufakazi, i-Stanford Encyclopedia yefilosofi yokungenisa i-filosophysis's . ingumcebo wezemfundo engcono kakhulu.

Isiphetho

Umehluko phakathi kokucabangisisa kobufakazi obusemqoka emacaleni omphakathi nangaphandle kokungabaza okunengqondo okungakholekiyo ungomunye wemiqondo ebaluleke kakhulu esimisweni somthetho waseMelika. Lemikhawulo ehlukene ibonisa izigxobo ezihlukene ezisemdlalweni kanye nezindinganiso umphakathi ofuna ukuzivikela. Amacala angaphakathi axazulula izingxabano zomuntu siqu ngezindlela zokwelapha zemali, kuyilapho izigebengu zikhuluma ngokulahlwa komphakathi ngesijeziso esingahlanganisa ukuboshwa. Ngokuqonda lezindinganiso, kanye nomthwalo wobufakazi nezinhlobo zobufakazi obungaqondakali, noma ubani angahamba kangcono esimisweni somthetho njenge-ligisan, isazi, noma isakhamuzi esinolwazi.