Table of Contents

Isimiso sokwahlulela saseMelika sisebenza ngezimiso zenkantolo ezimbili ezihlukene kodwa ezihlangene: izinkantolo zikahulumeni nezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Njengoba umthetho ophakeme wezwe, uMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. usungula isimiso sikahulumeni kahulumeni onamandla ahlanganyelwayo phakathi kukahulumeni kahulumeni nohulumeni bakahulumeni, futhi kokubili uhulumeni kahulumeni ngamunye nohulumeni ngamunye wombuso unezimiso zabo siqu. Ukuqonda ukungafani phakathi kwalezizimiso ezimbili kubalulekile kunoma ubani owethula izindaba ezingokomthetho, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ungummangalelwa, ufakazi, noma nje isakhamuzi esinolwazi. Lesiqondiso esibanzi sihlola ukuhlukanisa okuyisisekelo phakathi kwezinkantolo zikahulumeni nombuso, kuhlanganise nezimiso zabo, izinqubo zabo, nezinqubo, nezinhlobo zecala ngalinye.

Ukuqonda Isimangalo: Isisekelo Segunya Lenkantolo

Juriscion ibhekisela egunyeni lenkantolo lokulalela amacala nokwenza izinqumo zomthetho. Lo mqondo uveza isisekelo sokuqonda ukuthi isiphi isimiso senkantolo esizosingatha indaba ethile engokomthetho. Umehluko phakathi kwegunya likahulumeni nombuso unquma ukuthi icala liyozwakala kuphi kuphela kodwa futhi yimiphi imithetho ezosetshenziswa, iziphi izinqubo ezizolandelwa, futhi yini engase ibe umphumela.

Icala LeNkantolo Kahulumeni: Lilinganiselwe Kodwa Linamandla

Izinkantolo zikaFederal zinemingcele elinganiselwe futhi zizwa kuphela izindaba ezihilela imibuzo kahulumeni nezindaba zomthetho-sisekelo. Abahleli bamisa isimiso senkantolo kahulumeni esingalalela amacala kuphela ezimweni ezikhethekile, futhi njengoba izinkantolo zikahulumeni zingalalela kuphela izinhlobo ezithile zamacala, eziningi zecala losuku ngalunye ezisingatha izinkantolo ezisingatha izenzakalo ezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Lokhu kulinganiselwa kwakuhloselwe ukulondoloza ukulingana kwamandla phakathi kohulumeni nohulumeni.

Izinkantolo zomphakathi zizwa izinhlobo ezimbili kuphela: lezo eziphakamisa "impikiswano engokomthetho" kanye nalezo ezihilela "ukungahlali ngokomthetho," ezihilela uHulumeni wase-U.S., uMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. noma eminye imithetho kahulumeni. Ukulawula kwe-Federal kuhlanganisa amacala ahilela ukwephulwa kwemithetho kahulumeni, izimpikiswano zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo, nezindaba lapho uhulumeni wase-United States eyiqembu khona. Lokhu kungahlanganisa ukumangalelwa kwezemthetho, ukuphulwa kwamalungelo omphakathi, ukuvinjelwa kwamalungelo omthetho-mthethweni, ukuvinjelwa ngokwembulwa kwemali, nezindaba zokufuduka.

Izimiso zezinhlobonhlobo zisebenza ezimweni lapho amaqembu evela emazweni ahlukene noma emazweni, futhi isilinganiso sempikiswano singaphezu kuka $75 000 (R150 000). Icala kumelwe lihlanganise ukumangalelwa cishe imali engu-R35 000 emonakalweni odaliweyo) uma kungamelwe ibekwe enkantolo yesifundazwe esikhundleni sawo. Leli lungiselelo livumela abantu abavela ezindaweni ezihlukahlukene ukuba bazwane nengxabano yabo kuhulumeni ongathathi hlangothi, livimbele ukucwa okungase kube khona ezinkantolo zikahulumeni.

Icala Lenkantolo YoMbuso: Icala Elibanzi Neliyinselele

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zinegunya elivamile, okusho ukuthi zinegunya kuzo zonke izinhlobo zecala. Izinkantolo zoMbuso ziyizinkantolo ze-"gallery" futhi zizwa wonke amacala angakhethwe ngokuqondile ezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Lokhu kusho ukuthi izinkantolo zikahulumeni zisingatha izimpikiswano eziningi ezingokomthetho e-United States.

Cishe amaphesenti angu-90 awo wonke amacala aqulwa enkantolo yaseMelika ayenzeka ngokwezinga likahulumeni. Amacala agunyaza umthetho womkhaya, nokuphulwa kwezimoto konke kuyicala likahulumeni. Izinkantolo zoMbuso zisingatha ukumangalelwa okuningi kobugebengu, ukumangalelwa kwabantu ngabanye, izingxabano zempahla, izindaba eziphambanayo, kanye nezindaba zobuhlobo basekhaya njengesahlukaniso nelungelo lokuwiswa kwabantwana.

Njengoba nje izinkantolo zikahulumeni zichaza imithetho kahulumeni, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zichaza imithetho kahulumeni, nombuso ngamunye uthatha imithetho yawo futhi uyichaze.

Ukulahlwa Kwesikhathi Esiphakathi: Lapho Zombili Izimiso Zisebenza

Kwezinye izimo, izinkantolo zikahulumeni nezezwe zinegunya, futhi amalungu angase akhethe ukuthi yiliphi inkantolo ezolizwa icala lawo. Lesi simo, esaziwa ngokuthi ukulawulwa kwecala ngasikhathi sinye, senzeka uma icala lingagcinwa kahle kunoma yisiphi isimiso. Ngokwesibonelo, ezinye iziphakamiso zamalungelo omphakathi, izimpikiswano ezithile ezihlanganisa amaqembu ahlukene, futhi amacala ahilela kokubili imibuzo yomthetho wombuso nowombuso angafanelekela noma yisiphi isigaba.

Uma kunezici ezivumelanayo ezivamile ezithinta ukukhethwa kwemithetho ye-foculture. Izici ezinjengemithetho ye-procedrom, ukwakhiwa kwejaji, ubuchwepheshe bokwahlulela, nemiphumela engenzeka zonke zingafeza indima ekunqumeni ukuthi ungalibhala kuphi icala. Ngenxa yokungafani okungokwesiko okuguqulela ekujuleni kwezindaba zomthetho, amacala aqulwa enkantolo kahulumeni ngokuvamile athatha isikhathi eside kunalawo aqhutshwa ngesimiso sombuso.

Izakhiwo Zezinkantolo Ezizimele

Isimiso senkantolo kahulumeni sinamazinga amathathu ayinhloko: izinkantolo zesifunda (inkantolo yamacala), izinkantolo zesifunda eziyizinga lokuqala lokudlulisa amacala, neNkantolo ePhakeme eUnited States, izinga lokugcina lokudlulisa isikhalo esimisweni sikahulumeni. Lesi simiso sezikhulu sinikeza amazinga amaningi okubukeza futhi siqinisekisa ukungaguquguquki ekugunyazweni komthetho kahulumeni esizweni sonke.

Izinkantolo Zesigodi ZaseUnited States: Izinga Lokuqulwa Kwecala

Izinkantolo zesifunda zaseUnited States ziyizinkantolo zokuqulwa kwamacala enkantolo kahulumeni lapho kuqulwa khona amacala kahulumeni, lapho kufakazelwa khona ofakazi, futhi kusebenza khona amacala ejaji kahulumeni, futhi kunezinkantolo zesifunda ezingu - 94 eUnited States. Isifunda ngasinye sineNkantolo Yesigodi eyodwa noma ngaphezulu, kuye ngobukhulu baso (iCalifornia inezine).

Izinkantolo zesigodi ziyizinkantolo ezivamile zokuqulwa kwenkantolo kahulumeni, inkantolo ngayinye yesifunda okungenani inejaji elilodwa lesifunda lase-United States, elimiswe uMongameli futhi eliqinisekiswe iSigele segama lokuphila, futhi izinkantolo zesigodi zisingatha amacala phakathi kwesimiso senkantolo kahulumeni – kokubili umbangi nobugebengu. Lamajaji ajabulela ukuphila ukuze aqinisekise ukuzimela kokwahlulela futhi awavikele ekucindezeleni kwezombangazwe.

Eminye imisebenzi yenkantolo yesigodi inikezwa amajaji kahulumeni, amiswa inkantolo yesifunda yiningi labahluleli futhi asebenzele iminyaka eyisishiyagalombili uma ethatha isikhathi esigcwele neminyaka emine uma eyingxenye yecala, futhi ezindabeni zobugebengu, amajaji angase engamele amacala athile, aphenye futhi abophe izimvume, akhiphe izimvume zokuqulwa kwecala, amise ibheyili, anqume izenzo ezithile (njengesenzwe sokucindezela ubufakazi), nezinye izenzo ezifanayo.

Izinkantolo Zokudlulisa Amacala Zase - United States: Izinga Eliphakathi

Kunezinkantolo ze-appellate eziyi-13 ezihlala ngaphansi kweNkantolo ePhakeme yase-U.S., futhi zibizwa ngokuthi izinkantolo zecala le-U.S., futhi umsebenzi wenkantolo edlulisa amacala uwukunquma ukuthi umthetho wasetshenziswa kahle yini enkantolo enkantolo yamacala noma enkampanini yokuqondisa kahulumeni. Izifunda zesifunda sase-U.S. zihlelwe zaba izifunda ezingu-12, ngasinye sinezinkantolo zamacala eUnited States.

Kunezinkantolo zesifunda ezingu-12 zesifunda, futhi enye ye-"Federal Transfusion," eyamiswa yiKhongolo ukuze ikhulule amanye amacala eNkantolo Ephakeme, nokuzwa amacala adluliswa ezinkantolo zesigodi ezingu-94. Isifunda ngasinye sesifunda sihlanganisa izifunda eziningi, futhi sidlulisa izikhalo ezivela ezinkantolo zesifunda ezisendaweni ethile ezihambelanayo. Ngokwesibonelo, isifunda sesihlanu sihlanganisa amazwe aseTexas, iLouisiana, neMissississippi, kanye namacala avela ezinkantolo zesifunda zalezo zifundazwe adluliselwe eNkantolo yeSikhathi Sezinhlolo Sesihlanu, esibekwe inhloko yesifunda eNew Orleans, eLouniaster.

Ngokuvamile, amacala angaphambi kweZinkantolo Zokudlulisa Amacala zaseU.S. azwakala ngeziphakamiso ezintathu zahluleli, futhi lowo olahlekelwayo angacela ukuba kuhlolwe futhi imvume yokuphinda ikhambi elivela eNkantolweni efanayo, lapho inani elikhulu lamajaji elivela enkantolo yokudlulisa amacala liyolizwa icala, futhi izinqubo zokuvinjelwa zingavamile kodwa ngokuvamile zenzeka lapho kunezingxabano phakathi kwezinqumo zezindawo ezihlukene esifundeni esisodwa noma lapho icala linencazelo engavamile.

INkantolo Ephakeme Yase - United States: Igunya Eliphakeme Kunawo Wonke

INkantolo Ephakeme yase - United States ikhipha isinqumo kumajaji kahulumeni futhi iyinkantolo ephakeme kakhulu esimisweni sokwahlulela futhi yenza izinqumo zokugcina kuzo zonke izikhalo ezivela ezinkantolo ezincane. UMthetho - sisekelo waseU.S. wamisa iNkantolo Ephakeme, okuwukuphela kwenkantolo eshiwo ngokuqondile kuleyoncwadi, futhi uMthetho - sisekelo unikeza uMkhandlu igunya lokwakha izinkantolo eziphansi njengoba kudingekile.

Ezimweni eziningi, amaqembu afuna ukubukezwa kwesinqumo senkantolo kahulumeni noma inkantolo kahulumeni ephansi ngesicelo secala se-certiorari, futhi iNkantolo ikhona ikhona ifuna ukunquma ukuthi yisiphi isinxephezelo sokuzwa, ithola izinkulungwane zezicelo ze-ceretoriari unyaka ngamunye futhi muva nje inikeza i-certiorari emacaleni angaba ngu-50-80 ngonyaka. INkantolo Ephakeme izwa inani elincane kakhulu lamacala unyaka ngamunye (engaphansi kwekhulu leminyaka yamuva).

INkantolo Ephakeme ikwamukela kahle ukuqulwa kwamacala anikeza imibuzo engokomthetho - sisekelo ebalulekile, izingxabano phakathi kwezinkantolo zesifunda ezihlukene, noma izindaba ezibaluleke kakhulu zesizwe. Uma iNkantolo isivuma ukuzwa icala, iba ummeli wokugcina womthetho kahulumeni, futhi izinqumo zayo zibopha zonke izinkantolo zikahulumeni eziphansi nezinkantolo zikahulumeni ezindabeni zomthetho kahulumeni.

Izinkantolo Ezikhethekile

Izinkantolo zenkantolo ze-Federal ziye zamiswa futhi ezindaweni ezimbalwa eziqondene nezindaba, isifunda ngasinye sikahulumeni siphinde sibe nenkantolo ebolile imali yalezozindaba, futhi ezinye izinkantolo ziphethe izwe lonke ngezindaba zentela (United States Taxico Courts), ziphikisa uhulumeni kahulumeni (United States Court of Federal Anties), futhi zihwebelana ngezizwe zonke (United States Court of International Trade). Lezinkantolo ezikhethekile zisingatha izindaba zobuchwepheshe ezidinga ubuchwepheshe obuqondile futhi zinikezele imvume yokulungisa imibandela ethile yecala elithile.

Izakhiwo Zezinkantolo ZoMbuso

Isimiso senkantolo yombuso siveza isimo sesimiso senkantolo kahulumeni ngoba ngokuvamile sakhiwa amazinga amathathu ayinhloko: izinkantolo zomthetho, izinkantolo zesifundazwe neNkantolo ePhakeme. Nokho, izimiso zenkantolo yesifundazwe ziyahlukahluka ngokwesifundazwe ngasinye, futhi ngasinye sihlukile kancane. Umbuso ngamunye unegunya lokuhlela isimiso sawo sokwahlulela ngokwemithetho nezimiso zawo siqu, okuholela ekuhlukahlukani kwamagama asezinkantolo, izakhiwo, nezinqubo.

Izinkantolo Zenkantolo ZoMbuso: Lapho Imacala Eqala Khona

Izinkantolo zenkantolo zisingatha amacala amaningi esikhungweni sombuso futhi ngokuvamile zihlukaniswa zibe izinkantolo eziphethe imibuso ebanzi nezinkantolo zegunya elilinganiselwe (isik., izinkantolo zomkhaya, izinkantolo zezenkantolo zezenkantolo ezizimele). Izinkantolo zezenkantolo zezomthetho ezilawulayo zizwa izinhlobonhlobo eziningi zamacala, kuhlanganise nezindaba ezingathi sína zobugebengu (izigebengu), izimpikiswano ezinkulu zombango, nokudluliswa kwezinkantolo eziphansi. Izinkantolo zesifunda zigxile ezinhlobo ezithile zecala noma ukusingatha izindaba ngaphansi kwezigebengo ezithile.

Izifunda eziningi zinezinhlu eziningi zezinkantolo zamacala. Ngokwesibonelo, ezinye izifundazwe zinamankantolo esifunda noma izinkantolo zikamasipala ezisingatha amacala amancane, ukuphazanyiswa kwezimoto, neziqulo ezincane zomphakathi, kuyilapho izinkantolo zesifunda noma izinkantolo eziphakeme zisingatha izindaba ezingathi sína ngokwengeziwe. Izinkantolo eziningi ezihlukene zigxile ezindabeni ezithile zokuphatha.

Izinkantolo Ezingenelayo

Akuzona zonke izifundazwe ezinazo, kodwa lapho zikhona, zihlola izinqumo ezivela ezinkantolo zamacala. Izinkantolo ze-intermediate appellate zisebenza njengezinga lokuqala lokudlulisa icala ezimisweni eziningi zikahulumeni, zihlola izinqumo zenkantolo zamaphutha angokomthetho. Lezinkantolo ngokuvamile aziqhubeli ukuqulwa okusha noma zizwe ubufakazi obengeziwe; kunalokho, zibukeza umbhalo ogciniwe enkantolo yokuqulwa kwecala ukuze zinqume ukuthi umthetho wasetshenziswa ngokufanele yini.

Izwe elinenani elikhulu labantu kanye nokuquliswa kwamacala kusengozini enkulu yokuba nezinkantolo eziphakathi nendawo ezisiza ekulawuleni isilinganiso sezikhalo futhi zivimbele inkantolo ephakeme kahulumeni ukuba inganqotshwa. Izifundazwe ezincane zingase zidlulise izikhalo ngokuqondile zisuka ezinkantolo eziqulwayo ziye enkantolo ephakeme yesifundazwe.

Izinkantolo Eziphakeme ZoMbuso: Igunya LikaHulumeni Eliphakeme Kunawo Wonke

Izinkantolo eziphakeme zikahulumeni zisho okokugcina kuzo zonke izinqumo zikahulumeni futhi lezi yizikhombi zezindawo zokugcina ezizokwenziwa" ezindabeni zikahulumeni. Izinkantolo eziPhakeme ziyizinkantolo eziphakeme kakhulu esimisweni sokwahlulela sikahulumeni, zibukeza izinqumo ezivela ezinkantolo eziphakathi noma ezinkantolo ezicacisini ezithile ngokuqondile.

Izinkantolo eziphakeme zikahulumeni zisebenza njengegunya lokugcina ezindabeni zomthetho wezwe nencazelo yomthetho-mthetho wezwe. Izinqumo zazo ngemibuzo yomthetho zibopha kuzo zonke izinkantolo eziphansi kuhulumeni futhi azinakudluliswa ezinkantolo zikahulumeni ngaphandle kokuba kuhileleke indaba yomthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni. Ezikhathini ezingavamile, isinqumo sezindaba zikahulumeni eziwenziwe eNkantolo Ephakeme yesifundazwe siyocelwa eNkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S.

Ukungafani Kwezinkantolo ZoMbuso

Omunye umthombo wokudideka ezinkantolo zikahulumeni eziqondayo ukuhlukahluka kwemihlangano ebizwa ngamagama. Inkantolo ephakeme kakhulu eNew York ibizwa ngokuthi iNkantolo Yamacala neNkantolo Ephakeme kahulumeni iyinkantolo yezinga eliphezulu. Lesimiso sokuqamba amagama siphambene nalokho abantu abaningi abangase bakulindele futhi sihluke kuhulumeni nakwezinye izifundazwe eziningi. Ukuguquguquka okunjalo kugcizelela ukubaluleka kokuqonda isimo esiqondile senkantolo ezweni ngalinye.

Izinhlobo Zamacala Eziqulwa Enkantolo Yesizwe

Ukuqonda ukuthi yiziphi izinhlobo zamacala eziqulwayo ezisenkantolo kahulumeni kusiza ekucaciseni ukuhlukaniswa kwamandla okwahlulela esimisweni saseMelika.

Icala Lezigebengu Ezizimele

Imithetho yobugebengu cishe iyimithetho kahulumeni kuphela, isimiso senkantolo yombuso simangalela izakhamuzi icala, futhi uHulumeni waseU.S. umangalela abantu abenza ubugebengu kuhulumeni. ubugebengu obuphakathi kwamazwe buhlanganisa ukwephulwa komthetho kahulumeni, njengokuphanga ebhange, amacala ezidakamizwa, izibhamu, noma ukuthumba.

Ubugebengu buwubugebengu kumuntu, bukwenza kube ubugebengu bukahulumeni, kodwa ukweba iposi kuyicala likahulumeni kusukela lihilela inxusa likahulumeni. Obunye ubugebengu bukahulumeni buhlanganisa ukwenziwa kwenkohliso, ukuphucwa kwezindawo, ukubalekela intela, ubuphekula, nobugebengu obuyenziwa ezikhungweni zezindawo zikahulumeni ezinjengezikhungo zezempi noma amapaki esizwe.

Ngezinye izikhathi, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zithatha igunya lokugwema ukudideka ezinkantolo zikahulumeni, futhi ezimweni ezinqamule imikhawulo kahulumeni, njengokuthumba, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zinegunya, ngakho akukho mpikiswano yokuthathelwa phambili. Lombuso olawula amacala ahlukene amazwe uqinisekisa ukuqulwa kwecala okufanayo futhi uqeda izinkinga ezingase zivele lapho izenzo zobugebengu zihlanganisa izikhundla zesifundazwe eziningi.

Icala Lomthetho - sisekelo Nemithetho Yamanxusa

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zithatha amacala lapho lendaba ithinta imithetho yezwe engase iphule uMthetho - sisekelo waseU.S., nemithetho kahulumeni elinganisela inkolo, inkulumo, namanye amalungelo ayisisekelo kubukezwa iNkantolo Ephakeme. Amacala omphakathi asekelwe emithethweni kahulumeni ahlanganisa imithetho evimbela ukucwaswa kwemisebenzi, noma imithetho elawula ukuhweba noma ukuncintisana (isivumelwano sobuthali).

Lezi zinkantolo zikahulumeni zilalela namacala ahilela izinhlangano zikahulumeni, izinselele ezinqubweni zikahulumeni, nezimpikiswano ngokuchazwa kwemithetho kahulumeni.

Izindaba Ezikhethekile Zezenhlalo

Zonke iziphakamiso ezisemthethweni, ukugunyazwa kwemvume, ukugcinwa kwamacala omthetho, amaMelika oMdabu, kanye nokugcinwa kwasolwandle zingaphansi kwegunya likahulumeni. Lezi zindawo ezikhethekile zidinga ukuqondisa kukahulumeni ngenxa yesizwe sazo, isidingo sobufana, noma amalungiselelo akhethekile omthetho-sisekelo anikeza igunya likahulumeni. Ngokwesibonelo, amacala akhokhelwayo nawabantu abanegunya lokubhala umbhali, kumelwe ahlolwe enkantolo kahulumeni ngoba isivikelo sempahla yomthetho silawulwa kuphela.

Izindaba lapho iUnited States iyinhlangano, njengokusho kweSocial Security noma ukwephulwa kwentela kukahulumeni, izimpikiswano phakathi kwezifundazwe ezimbili, namacala ahilela ohulumeni bakwamanye amazwe abanjengezohwebo zamazwe noma izivumelwano zakwamanye amazwe nazo zisenkantolo kahulumeni. Lamacala ahilela izindaba zokukhathazeka kwesizwe noma adinga ukuncintisana kukahulumeni.

Izinhlobo Zamacala Ezizwakala Enkantolo Kahulumeni

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zisingatha izimpikiswano eziningi ezingokomthetho e - United States, zikhulumela izindaba ezithinta ukuphila kwabantu kwansuku zonke futhi zibonisa izidingo ezihlukene ezingokomthetho zemiphakathi yendawo.

Ukumangalela Kwesigebengu SikaHulumeni

Izenzo eziningi zobugebengu zisezingxenyeni zokwephulwa komthetho kahulumeni, njengokuphanga, ukuhlasela, ukubulala, nobugebengu obuhlobene nezidakamizwa. Imithetho yoMbuso yobugebengu ichaza amacala kusukela eziphambanweni ezincane njengokuphambana kwezimoto kuya eziphambanweni ezingathi ukubulala. Abashushisi bamazwe baletha amacala embusweni, futhi amacala aqulwa phambi kwabahluleli bezwe nabejaji.

Iningi lezigebengu liquliswa izigebengu ngenxa yokuthi imithetho eminingi yobugebengu iyimithetho kahulumeni.

Ukungezwani Kwezakhamuzi Nezindaba Zomthetho Wangasese

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zisingatha izimpikiswano eziningi zesivumelwano, kuhlanganise nezimpikiswano zokulimala komuntu siqu, izingxabano zempahla, izingxabano zezindawo, nezebhizinisi. Lamacala ahilela izigebengu ezizimele ezifuna amakhambi ezokona okuthiwa noma ukugcinwa kwamalungelo angokomthetho ngaphansi komthetho.

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziqondisa futhi izindaba zomthetho womkhaya, izingxabano zesivumelwano, nezindawo ezingaphansi kwegunya lombuso. Amacala omthetho womkhaya − kuhlanganise isehlukaniso, ukuwinwa kwabantwana, ukutholwa, nobudlova basekhaya — kusingathwa cishe kuphela ezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Lezizindaba ezibucayi zihilela imithetho elawula umshado, ukuba umzali, kanye nobudlelwane bomkhaya.

Ifa Nezindaba Zefa

Lezi zindaba zihilela amalungelo okubusa impahla, ifa, ifa, nokuvikela abantu abasengozini. Izinkantolo ezizimele noma izigaba zezinkantolo eziphethe lezi zikhulu zivame ukusingatha lamacala, ukusebenzisa imithetho kahulumeni nezimiso eziqondene nezindawo.

Izinkinga Zomthetho - sisekelo KaHulumeni

Impikiswano ephakamayo evela kumthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni noma eminye imithetho kahulumeni izwakala ezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Ngokuvamile imithetho-mthetho yoMbuso inikeza isivikelo esilingana noma esidlula esisemthethweni kahulumeni, futhi izinkantolo zikahulumeni zichaza la malungiselelo ngokuzimele. Izinkantolo eziphakeme zoMbuso zisebenza njengegunya lokugcina emibuzweni yomthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni, futhi izincazelo zazo azinakugumbuqelwa izinkantolo zikahulumeni ngaphandle kokuba izindaba zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo zihileleke.

Ukukhethwa Kokwahlulela Nokubhekana Nezimo

Izindlela zokukhetha abahluleli zihluke kakhulu phakathi kwezimiso zikahulumeni nohulumeni, ezibonisa amafilosofi ahlukahlukene ngokuzimela kokwahlulela, ukulandisa, nokuhlanganyela ngentando yeningi.

Ukumiswa Kokwahlulela Kwama - United States

Amajaji ahlangene (neNkantolo Ephakeme") akhethwa nguMongameli futhi aqinisekiswe "ngeseluleko nemvume" yeSigele futhi "azobamba amahhovisi awo phakathi nokuziphatha okuhle," futhi amajaji angathatha isikhundla sabo kukho konke ukuphila kwabo, kodwa abaningi bayeka noma bathathe umhlalaphansi ngaphambi kwesikhathi, futhi bangasuswa futhi ngokungezwani yiNdlu yabameleli kanye nokuvunyelwa iSigele.

Ukuphila okungcono kwamajaji kahulumeni kuklanyelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuzimela kokwahlulela ngokuvikela amajaji ekucindezeleni kwezombangazwe futhi abavumele ukuba benze izinqumo ezisekelwe emehlweni kunokuba zisekelwe embusweni othandwayo noma ekucabangeleni kwezombangazwe. Lokhu ukuzimela kubhekwa njengokubalulekile endima yejaji likahulumeni njengendlela yokuhlola amanye amagatsha kahulumeni nolwelwelwe lwamalungelo omthetho-sisekelo.

Okunye okungasamukeleki ekumisweni kwesikhathi sokuphila amajaji esifunda, akhethwa abahluleli besifunda futhi asebenzise igama elithile. Lokhu kuveza izindima nemithwalo yemfanelo ehlukene yamajaji, asingatha izindaba zokwandulela futhi asize abahluleli bezifunda kodwa angenalo igunya eligcwele leSiphakamiso III samajaji.

Ukukhethwa Kwezwe Ekwahluleleni Isahlulelo

Nakuba amajaji kahulumeni emiswa ngumongameli, amajaji ombuso akhethwa ngezindlela ezihlukahlukene: umbusi noma izigqebhezana zomthetho noma ukhetho. Amazwe asebenzisa izindlela ezihlukahlukene zokukhetha amajaji, kuhlanganise nokhetho olu-crast, nokhetho olungena-partisan, lufanele ukukhethwa (okubizwa futhi ngokuthi i-Missouri Plan), ukumisa i-gubernatorial, nokumisa umthetho. Ezinye izigaba zisebenzisa izindlela ezihlukene ezizingalinganisweni zezinkantolo.

Indlela yokukhetha ngayinye ibonisa izindinganiso ezihlukene nezinto eziza kuqala. Izinhlelo zigcizelela ukulandisa kwentando yeningi nokuhlanganyela komphakathi, kuyilapho izimiso zokumisa zingamisa izakhiwo eziphambili zobuchwepheshe obungokomthetho nokulawula ngokucindezela kwezombangazwe. Izimiso zokukhetha ezizifunayo zizama ukulinganisela lezi zinkathazo ngokuhilela kokubili ukuhlola kobuchwepheshe nokufakwa kwentando yeningi.

Amajaji ezwe avame ukusebenzisa amagama amisiwe kunokusebenzisa ukuphila, nakuba ubude begama buhluka kakhulu. Ezinye izifundazwe zinikeza amagama amade noma ukhetho olunikeza ukulondeka okuqinile kwemisebenzi, kuyilapho ezinye zifuna amajaji ukuba abhekane nokhetho oluncintisanayo njalo. Lokhu kungafani kuthinta ukuzimela kokwahlulela nokulandisa ngezindlela ezihlukanisa izinkantolo zikahulumeni nezikahulumeni.

Ukungezwani Okungokwemvelo Phakathi Kwezinkantolo Zombuso Nezase - Federal

Nakuba izinkantolo zikahulumeni nombuso zivumelana kakhulu ngokufana, kunomehluko omkhulu endleleni amacala aqhubeka ngayo esimisweni ngasinye. Lokhu kushintsha kwemiklamo kungathinta kakhulu inqubo nemiphumela.

Imithetho Yenqubo

Imithetho nemithetho ezinkantolo zikahulumeni nohulumeni nayo ibonisa ukungefani, izinqubo zenkantolo zikahulumeni ngokuvamile zihleliwe futhi zihlelwe ngendlela engokomthetho, futhi zigcizelela imithetho yobufakazi ngokuzikhandla, kuyilapho izinqubo zenkantolo yesifundazwe zingase zihlukahluke ngokuphawulekayo ngenxa yemithetho yombuso ngamunye, zizenze zivumelane ngokwengeziwe nezidingo zendawo.

Izinkantolo ze-Federal Umthetho we-Civil Procedure, i-Federal Rules of Criminal Procediture, ne-Federal Rules of Evidence. Lemithetho efanayo iyasebenza kuzo zonke izinkantolo zesifunda sezwe ezweni lonke, ikhuthaza ukungaguquguquki nokubikezela. Ngokuphambene, izinkantolo zoMbuso, zilandela imithetho yazo siqu elandela imithetho esekelwe kumthetho kahulumeni nemithetho yezinye i-ocester.

Ukuthola--------enquisiwe(inqubo yangaphambi kokuqulwa kwecala yobufakazi). Ngokuvamile ihlukile phakathi kwezinkantolo zikahulumeni nombuso. Izinkantolo ze-Federal zivame ukuba nemithetho eminingi kakhulu yokuthola, ivumela amaqembu ukuba athole ukwaziswa okwengeziwe ngaphambi kokuqulwa kwecala. Lokhu kugcona kungaholela ekubekeni izikhala ezinde zecala kodwa kungathuthukisa futhi ukuhlaliswa ngokunikeza amaqembu umbono ocacile wobufakazi.

Umkhuba Wokuhamba Nentuthuko Yangaphambili

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zithambekele ekubeni nomkhuba wokuhamba kabanzi, kanye namaphathi avame ukuthatha izinyathelo zokuxosha, ukuthatha izinyathelo zokwahlulela okufushanisiwe, kanye neminye imisebenzi yangaphambi kwecala. Amajaji angokoMasipala avame ukuthatha indlela eyengeziwe yokusingatha amacala, ukuphatha izingqungquthela zesikhundla nokumisa imithetho eqinile ukuze kudluliselwe amacala phambili ngokuphumelelayo.

Ezinye izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziye zamukela izinqubo ezifana nezinkantolo zikahulumeni, kuyilapho ezinye zilondoloza izindlela ezingokwesiko ezinokusingatha amacala okungakhathazeki. Lokhu kungafani kungathinta indlela amacala ashesha ngayo ukuqulwa kwecala namathuba akhona okuxazulula amacala ngaphambi kokuqulwa kwecala.

Izindlela Zokuqulwa Kwamacala

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni nombuso ziqulisa amacala ngezici ezifanayo eziyisisekelo: ukukhetha abahluleli, izitatimende zokuvula, ukunikeza ubufakazi, ukuphetha izimpikiswano, iziyalezo zokwahlulela, nokuzicabangela. Nokho, izinqubo ezithile zingahluka. Ngokwesibonelo, inani labaphathi bejaji, imithetho yokukhethwa kwabahluleli, nezindinganiso zokungahlangani kwejaji zingahluka phakathi kwezinkantolo zikahulumeni nezezwe ezihlukene.

Izinkantolo ze-Federal ngokuvamile zidinga izinqumo zamajaji ezivumelanayo ezicabeni zobugebengu, njengoba kugunyazwa incazelo yeNkantolo Ephakeme yeSichibiyelo Sesithupha. Izinkantolo zikahulumeni ngokomlando zazivumelana kakhudlwana, nakuba izinqumo zamuva nje zeNkantolo Ephakeme ziye zandisa imfuneko yokungalingani ekukhipheni isigwebo sobugebengu. Amacala ombango angase abe nezimfuneko ezihlukene kuye ngokuthi isiphi isikhundla.

Inqubo Yokufuna Ukuzibulala

Indlela yokudlulisa izicelo iyahluka phakathi kwezimiso zikahulumeni nohulumeni, nakuba zombili zinikeza amathuba okubukeza izinqumo zenkantolo zokuqulwa kwecala.

Ukukhanga Kwama - compal

Umehluko oyinhloko inqubo yokudlulisa icala, iNkantolo Yokudlulisa Amacala yaseU.S. ilalela izikhalo zamacala kahulumeni, futhi lamacala angahlala futhi phambi kweNkantolo Ephakeme yaseU.S., inkantolo ephakeme kunazo zonke ezweni. Uma inkantolo yesifunda seyinqume icala, lelicala lingase lidluliselwe enkantolo yecala yaseUnited States.

Izikhalo ze-Federal zilandela indlela ehlelwe kahle kusukela enkantolo yesifunda ukuya enkantolo yesifunda ukuya eNkantolo Ephakeme. Izinkantolo zesifunda kumelwe zilalele izikhalo ezivela ezinkantolo zesifunda ezingaphansi kwegunya lazo, nakuba iNkantolo Ephakeme inelungelo lamaphi amacala eyamukelayo. Lesi simiso siqinisekisa ukuthi okungenani izinga elilodwa lokubukeza izibalo livumela iNkantolo Ephakeme ukuba igxile emacaleni engokobuzwe.

Ukukhanga Kukahulumeni

Ezimisweni zenkantolo yezwe, izikhalo ziya ezinkantolo zikahulumeni futhi zingase zingaqhubeki zidlulele enkantolo ephakeme kakhulu kahulumeni, ehluka kuye ngokwezwe. Izwe nezinkantolo eziphakathi lifuna ukuba lezo zinkantolo zizwe izikhalo ezivela ezinkantolo zokuqulwa kwecala, kuyilapho inkantolo ephakeme yezwe inesinqumo samacala okumelwe yamukele. Ezizweni ngaphandle kwezinkantolo eziphakathi, inkantolo ephakeme yezwe izwa zonke izikhalo ngokuqondile.

Izinqubo zikahulumeni zehluka kakhulu. Ezinye izifundazwe zinezicelo ezibophekile zezindlela ezithile zecala, njengecala lesigwebo sokufa, kuyilapho ezinye zinikeza izinkantolo imvume ebanzi. Izindinganiso zokunikeza ukubukeza, izimfuneko ezifushanisiweyo, nezinqubo zempikiswano ezishiwoyo zonke ziyahluka phakathi kwezifundazwe.

Ukukhanga Kohlelo

Uma isiphakamiso sokuqala senkululeko yokukhuluma sinqunywa inkantolo ephakeme kakhulu yenkantolo kahulumeni (ngokuvamile inkantolo ephakeme) ingadluliswa eNkantolo Ephakeme kahulumeni. Nokho, uma lelocala linganqunywa ngokuphelele emthethweni kahulumeni ofana neSichibiyelo Sokuqala, iNkantolo Ephakeme yaseUnited States ibingeke ikwazi ukulicabangela icala.

Lokhu kulinganiselwa kubonisa isimiso sokuthi izinkantolo zikahulumeni zinegunya lokugcina emibuzweni yomthetho kahulumeni. INkantolo Ephakeme yaseU.S. ingabukeza izinqumo zenkantolo yenkantolo kuphela lapho zihilela izindaba zomthetho - sisekelo kahulumeni noma zomthetho - sisekelo.

Ukujeziswa Nesigwebo

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni nezikahulumeni zisebenzisa izinqubo ezihlukene zokugweba, okuholela emiphumeleni ehlukahlukene engenzeka emacalani afanayo.

Ukugwetshwa Kwama - Federal

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zisebenzisa i - Federal Sendensing Guidelines, edala izijeziso ezihleliwe ezisekelwe ekwahluleleni kobugebengu nomlando wobugebengu, futhi nakuba lezi ziqondiso ziwumthetho kunokuba zibe yisibopho, amajaji kahulumeni asazicabangela lapho zithola imigwebo emikhulu, futhi izigwebo zikahulumeni zivame ukuba zinde futhi ziqondakale kangcono kunemigwebo yombuso.

Isimiso sikahulumeni sifuna futhi abamangalelwa ukuba basebenzise okungenani amaphesenti angu-85 emigwebo yabo ngaphambi kokuba bafanelekele ukukhululwa, okuhluke kakhulu ezimisweni zikahulumeni, ezingase zinikeze amathuba amaningi okudedelwa kwasekuqaleni. Lemfuneko yokugunyazwa kweqiniso isho iziboshwa zikahulumeni zikhonza kakhulu izigwebo zazo kuneziboshwa eziningi zikahulumeni.

Ukugwetshwa KukaHulumeni

Izimiso zokugweba zikahulumeni ziyehluka kakhulu. Ezinye izifundazwe ziye zamukela iziqondiso zokugweba ezifana nezimiso zikahulumeni, kuyilapho ezinye zinikeza amajaji ukwahlulela okubanzi ezinhlangeni ze-statory. Amazwe ayahluka futhi ezindleleni zawo zokukhipha isigwebo, ukuthenga izimali ngesikhathi esihle, nezinye izindlela zokukhulula kwasekuqaleni.

Lokhu kungafani kungaphumela emigwebeni ehlukene kakhulu yokuziphatha okufanayo kuye ngokuthi ukuquliswa kwecala kwenzeka yini enkantolo kahulumeni noma kahulumeni.

Ubuhlobo Phakathi Kwezinkantolo Zomphakathi NoMbuso

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni nezikahulumeni zisebenza njengezimiso ezihlukene, kodwa zisebenzelana ngezindlela ezibalulekile ezithinta indlela amacala axazululwa ngayo nendlela umthetho okhula ngayo.

Ubukhosi Obubodwa

Ubukhosi obubodwa busho ukuthi umbusi ngamunye unesimiso sakhe siqu senkantolo: izifundakazi ngasinye zinamankantolo futhi iUnited States inezinkantolo, ezibizwa ngokuthi izinkantolo zikahulumeni, futhi izinkantolo zikahulumeni zikhona kulo lonke elaseUnited States. Lesimiso esimbaxambili sibonisa isimo sombuso sikahulumeni waseMelika, lapho kokubili uhulumeni wezwe nohulumeni bezwe basebenzisa khona amandla obukhosi ezingxenyeni zabo ezihlukene.

Isimiso sengozi ephindwe kabili − ukuthi umuntu akanakuqulwa ngenxa yobugebengu obufanayo kabili, asisebenzi phakathi kwecala likahulumeni nelombuso, futhi uma icala liquliswa enkantolo yombuso futhi ummangalelwa ekhululiwe, uhulumeni wezwe angafaka icala elifanayo enkantolo kahulumeni uma ukuziphatha okufanayo kobugebengu kuphula kokubili imithetho kahulumeni nohulumeni. Lemfundiso ehlukene ivumela kokubili uhulumeni nomthetho ofanayo lapho wephula kokubili umthetho wezwe nohulumeni, nakuba ukumangalelwa okunjalo okumbaxakile.

Ukubukeza Okuqhubekayo Kwezinqumo Zenkantolo KaHulumeni

Izinkantolo zesifunda zamaFederal zingabukeza izinqumo zenkantolo yesifunda ezisesimweni esilinganiselwe iNkantolo Ephakeme yase - United States ingabukeza izinqumo eziphakeme zenkantolo ezihilela umthetho - sisekelo kahulumeni noma ukuqulwa kwemithetho. Izinkantolo zesifunda zikahulumeni zingabukeza futhi ukulahlwa kwecala lenkantolo ngomthetho - sisekelo owephula umthetho, lapho iziboshwa zikahulumeni zibekela khona izinkolelo zazo inselele ngenxa yokuphulwa komthetho - sisekelo.

Lokhu kubukeza kuqinisekisa ukuthi amalungelo omthetho - sisekelo kahulumeni avikelwe ngokufanayo kuwo wonke amazwe kuyilapho ehlonipha igunya lenkantolo ezindabeni zomthetho kahulumeni. Ukulinganisa phakathi kokubukeza kukahulumeni nokuzibusa kukahulumeni kuye kwaba umthombo wengxabano eqhubekayo nokuziphendukela kwemvelo emthethweni waseMelika.

Izinkantolo ZoMbuso Ezisebenzisa Umthetho Wesifundazo

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zisebenza njalo futhi zichaze umthetho kahulumeni. Uma icala elithile enkantolo lihilela izindaba zikahulumeni noma zomthetho-mthetho, inkantolo yezwe kumelwe isebenzise umthetho kahulumeni njengoba uchazwa iNkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S. futhi kwezinye izimo, izinkantolo zesifunda zikahulumeni. Lemfuneko iqinisekisa ukuthi umthetho kahulumeni usetshenziswa njalo kungakhathaliseki ukuthi yisiphi isimiso senkantolo esizwa icala.

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zingachaza umthetho kahulumeni ngokubanzi kakhulu kunamankantolo kahulumeni ezimweni ezithile, ikakhulukazi lapho amalungiselelo omthetho - sisekelo kahulumeni enikeza isivikelo esikhulu kunesabo.

Ukukhathalela Okuwusizo Kwababezimbuluzayo

Ukuqonda umehluko phakathi kwezinkantolo zikahulumeni nezikahulumeni kuthinta noma ubani ohilelekile emacaleni angokomthetho.

Ukukhetha Inkundla Efanele

Uma kukhona ukuvumelana kwezimiso, ukukhethwa kwenkantolo kahulumeni nokazwe kudinga ukucatshangelwa ngokucophelela kwezici eziningi. Izinkantolo ze-Federal zinganikeza izinzuzo ezinjengezinqubo eziqondakalisiwe, imithombo emikhulu, namajaji anolwazi kumthetho kahulumeni. Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zinganikeza izinzuzo ezinjengesinqumo esisheshayo, izinqubo ezivumelanayo, futhi izahluleli ezijwayelene nemikhuba nomthetho wezwe.

Ukwakheka nesimo sengqondo sabhratimente kungase kuhluke futhi phakathi kwezinkantolo zikahulumeni nombuso. Izehlulelo zamajaji zithathwa ezindaweni ezinkulu zendawo, zinganikeza umbono ohlukile kunamacala enkantolo kahulumeni avela esifundeni esisodwa. Lokhu kungafani kungathinta icebo lokulungisa nokuxoxa.

Ukuqonda Umthetho Olula

Ukwazi ukuthi yiliphi icala elizoxoxwa kusiza ekunqumeni ukuthi yimiphi imithetho eyosetshenziswa. Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zisebenzisa umthetho kahulumeni emibuzweni kahulumeni kodwa zingasebenzisa nomthetho kahulumeni ezicabeni ezihlukahlukene. Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zisebenzisa umthetho kahulumeni emibuzweni yomthetho kodwa kumelwe zisebenzise umthetho kahulumeni emibuzweni kahulumeni. Ukuqonda lokhu kuhlukanisa kubalulekile ekuhloleni amandla ecala nasekuthuthukiseni izimpikiswano ezingokomthetho.

Ukukhipha Izimfuneko Zemvelo

Isimiso senkantolo ngasinye sinemithetho yaso siqu, izimfuneko zokuhlela, nezikhathi ezimisiwe. Ukuhluleka ukwenza ngokuvumelana nalezi zimfuneko kungaphumela ekuxoshweni kwecala noma umlahlekisi wamalungelo abalulekile. Ama-Attorney asebenza enkantolo kahulumeni kumelwe avunywe ebhandeni laleyonkantolo ethile kahulumeni, edinga ukuvunyelwa ngokwahlukene ngaphandle kwamalungu ombuso.

Ukuqonda ukungafani kwenqubo futhi kusiza izigigaba zilindele isikhathi nezindleko ze-liveniage. Izenzakalo ze-Federal zingahilela ukuvubukula okukhulu nomkhuba wokuhamba, okungandisa izindleko futhi kunikeze ukwaziswa okwengeziwe ngezingxoxo zokuxazulula izingxoxo. Izinqubo zenkantolo zikahulumeni ziyahlukahluka, futhi ukujwayelana nemithetho nemikhuba yendawo kubalulekile ukuze kuboniswe ngendlela ephumelelayo.

Indima Yezandulela

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni nohulumeni zisebenza ngaphansi kwemfundiso yokubheka, edinga izinkantolo ukuba zilandele izenzakalo ezamiswa izinkantolo eziphakeme. Nokho, umphumela obophayo wesibonelo uyahluka phakathi kwalezi zimiso ezimbili.

Isiqalo Sezentengiselwano

Izinqumo zeNkantolo ePhakeme yase-U.S. zibopha zonke izinkantolo zikahulumeni nazo zonke izinkantolo zikahulumeni ezindabeni zomthetho kahulumeni. Izinqumo zesifunda zibopha izinkantolo zesifunda zikahulumeni kulesosifunda kodwa azibopheleli izinkantolo zesifunda kwezinye izifunda noma izinkantolo zikahulumeni. Lesimiso singaholela ekuhlolweni "kwehlukana kwezindawo," lapho izifunda ezihlukahlukene zichaza umthetho kahulumeni ngokwehlukile, ngokuvamile zishukumisela ukubukezwa kweNkantolo Ephakeme ukuxazulula lempi.

Isiqalo sesimo

Izinqumo eziyinhloko zenkantolo yoMbuso zibopha zonke izinkantolo eziphansi kulelozwe kodwa azibopheli izinkantolo kwezinye izifunda noma izinkantolo zikahulumeni. Izinqumo zenkantolo zibopha izinkantolo eziphansi ngaphansi kwegunya lazo kodwa zingase zingabopheleli izinkantolo kwezinye izigodi esifundazweni esifanayo, kuye ngesimo sikahulumeni.

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zingabheka kwezinye izizwe ukuze zithole igunya lokuthonya lapho ziphendula imibuzo eqanjiwe, kodwa aziboshiwe yizincazelo zezinye izifunda zemithetho yazo. Lokhu kuzikhethela kuvumela amazwe ukuba athuthukise ezawo izimfundiso ezingokomthetho kuyilapho efunda kolunye uhulumeni.

Izinkinga Nezinselele Zesikhathi Esizayo

Ubuhlobo phakathi kwezinkantolo zikahulumeni nezikahulumeni buyaqhubeka bushintsha njengoba kuvela izindaba ezintsha ezingokomthetho futhi kudingeka ubudlelwane bushintshe.

Ubumbano Nombuso

Izimpikiswano eziqhubekayo eziphathelene nombuso zithinta ukulinganisela phakathi kwegunya likahulumeni nelombuso. Imibuzo ephathelene nesilinganiso esifanele sokubusa kukahulumeni, izinga lokubukezwa kukahulumeni kwezinqumo zenkantolo yombuso, nokulingana phakathi kokuhlangana kwesizwe nokuhlukahluka kwezwe kusekhona. Lempikiswano idlalwa ezinqumweni zeNkantolo Ephakeme, umthetho wengqungquthela, nenkulumo yemfundo.

Ukufinyelela Ekulungeni

Zombili izinkantolo zikahulumeni nohulumeni zibhekene nezinselele zokuqinisekisa ukuthi zonke izakhamuzi zithola ubulungisa. Izinkantolo zeFederal zisingatha amacala ambalwa kodwa zibhekene nemingcele enzima yemali kanye nemithwalo yecala enzima kwezinye izigodi. Izinkantolo zoMbuso zisingatha amacala amaningi kodwa ngokuvamile zibhekana ngisho nokulinganiselwa okukhulu kwemithombo yempahla, okuthinta ikhono lazo lokunikeza ubulungisa ngesikhathi esifanelekile.

Ubuchwepheshe Nokubuyiselwa

Zombili lezi zimiso zezinkantolo zivumelana nezinguquko zobuchwepheshe, zisebenzisa izimiso zama - electronic, ama - stem e - ecculture, namathuluzi okulawula amanani.

Imithombo Yokwaziswa Okwengeziwe

Izakhamuzi ezifuna ukuqonda okwengeziwe ngezinkantolo zikahulumeni nombuso zingathola imithombo eminingi. Iwebhusayithi yenkantolo yase-U.S. inikeza ukwaziswa okubanzi ngesimiso senkantolo sezwe, kuhlanganise nesakhiwo senkantolo, izinqubo, nemfundo. Umbuso ngamunye ulondoloza ingosi yawo yesimiso senkantolo ngokwaziswa okuphathelene nohlelo lwenkantolo, imithetho, nenqubo.

Izinhlangano zosizo ezingokomthetho, ama-bar comm, nezincwadi zomthetho zinikeza imithombo yabantu abahamba ngezinyawo ezisebenza enkantolo. Izinkantolo eziningi zinikeza izikhungo zosizo kanye nezinto zokwaziswa ezizimele ngaphandle kwabameli. Ukuqonda izisekelo zezakhiwo zenkantolo nombuso kunika izakhamuzi amandla okuhlanganyela ngokuphumelelayo esimisweni somthetho futhi zisekele amalungelo azo.

Isiphetho

Umehluko phakathi kwezinkantolo zikahulumeni nombuso ubonakalisa izimiso eziyisisekelo zikahulumeni waseMelika: ubuzwe, ukuhlukana kwemibuso, nokulinganisela phakathi kobunye besizwe nokuhlukahluka kwezwe. Izinkantolo zesifunda zisebenzisa igunya elilinganiselwe ezindabeni zokukhathazeka kwesizwe, ukuchaza umthetho - sisekelo, nezimpikiswano ezinqamula imingcele yombuso. Izinkantolo zoMbuso zinegunya elibanzi ezimpikiswaneni eziningi ezingokomthetho, zisebenzisa umthetho kahulumeni ezindabeni ezithinta ukuphila kwansuku zonke.

Ukuqonda lokhu kungafani kubalulekile kunoma ubani ohilelekile eqenjini elingokomthetho, njengommeli, ummeli, noma isakhamuzi esinolwazi. Isimo, isimiso, izinqubo, negunya lesimiso senkantolo ngayinye kuthinta indlela amacala axazululwa ngayo nendlela umthetho okhula ngayo. Nakuba lezi zimiso ezimbili zisebenza ngokuzimele, zisebenza ngezindlela ezibalulekile ezimisa umthetho waseMelika futhi zivikele amalungelo omthetho - sisekelo.

Zombili izinkantolo zikahulumeni nombuso zifeza indima ebalulekile ekuqondiseni ubulungisa, ekuvikeleni amalungelo, nasekulondolozeni ukubusa komthetho. Imisebenzi yazo ehlukile kodwa evumelanayo ibonakalisa ubunkimbinkimbi kanye nokuyinkimbinkimbi kwesimiso somthetho waseMelika, inikeza izikhawu eziningi zokuxazulula izimpikiswano nemibono eminingi emibuzweni engokomthetho. Ngokuqonda indlela lezizimiso ezisebenza ngayo nendlela ezihluke ngayo, izakhamuzi zingasebenzisa kangcono izinselele ezingokomthetho, zihlanganyele ekuphileni komphakathi, futhi ziqaphele ukulinganisela okuyinkimbinkimbi kwemibuso ebonakalisa ukubusa ngentando yeningi yaseMelika.

Ukuze uthole ukwaziswa okwengeziwe ngesimiso senkantolo kahulumeni, vakashela i-website esemthethweni yase-U.S. [. Ukufunda ngesimiso senkantolo yombuso wakho, hlola iwebhusayithi yejaji lezwe lakho noma thintana nenhlangano yebhange le-bar yendawo yakho ukuze uthole isiqondiso nemithombo.