Isingeniso: INkantolo Ephakeme Njengomsunguli Wokulinganisa

INkantolo Ephakeme yase-United States sekuyisikhathi eside isebenza njengendawo yokulwa ebucayi yamalungelo alinganayo, ichaza uMthetho-sisekelo ngezindlela eziye zaguqula umphakathi waseMelika. Nakuba iNkantolo ngokuvamile isebenza njengenhlangano ethatha imingcele, izinqumo zayo ezibonisa ukulingana ngezinye izikhathi ziye zahamba phambili kakhulu kunemibono yomphakathi nezenzo zomthetho. Ukususa ukuqeda ukuhlukaniswa ngokohlanga kuya ekuqapheleni umshado owengeziwe, lezi zinqumo azizange zishintshe kuphela izimiso ezingokomthetho kodwa futhi zashintsha indlela amaMelika aqonda ngayo isithunzi, inkululeko, nesivikelo esilinganayo ngaphansi komthetho. Lesi sihloko sihlola izinqumo eziningi ezilandelayo zeNkakhulu elwela amalungelo alinganayo, siveza ukubheka kakhulu imvelaphi yawo, ukucabanga, kanye nomphumela ohlala njalo, kuhlanganise nendlela izinqumo eziye zakhiwa ngayo noma kwezinye izimo.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Ukudalula "Inani kodwa Lilingana"

Isizinda

Cishe iminyaka engamashumi ayisithupha, imfundiso "yokwahlukana kodwa elingana" yasungulwa ku-'Foct] v. Ferguson (1896) yayivumele ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ezikhungweni zomphakathi. Ekuqaleni kuka-1950, iNaACP Legin Defense Fund, iholwa nguTur Marshall, ngokusemthethweni wabekela inselele imfundo eqinile ngokuthi ukuzihlukanisa ngokwako kulimaza abantwana abamnyama. Amacala abekwa ngaphansi Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo yezemfundo[ yaqala eKansas, eSouth Carolina, naseDelikan.

Isinqumo Esiphelele

IJaji eliyinhloko u-Earl Warren wanikeza umbono ovumelanayo ngoMay 17, 1954, limemezela ukuthi "izakhiwo zemfundo ezihlukene azilingani ngokwemvelo" iNkantolo yalahla isiqalo sePlesty, iphethe ukuthi ukuhlukaniswa ezikoleni zomphakathi kwakuphula i-Ecult Protection Claus yeSichibiyelo se-145th. Isinqumo sasimfushane futhi sifinyeleleka ngamabomu, sihloselwe ukunciphisa ukumelana nomthetho.

Ukusebenzisa Nokumelana Nezimo

Ngonyaka olandelayo, Brown II (1955]) wayala ukuba kuqhutshwe inqubo "ngejubane lahlo," inkulumo eyavumela izifunda zaseNingizimu ukuba zibambezele futhi zimelane. Ukwenqaba kobuqhawe, kuhlanganise nokuvalwa kwezikole zomphakathi eVirginia kanye nokumiswa kwe-Little Rock Central High School, kwathatha intuthuko kancane. Yathatha i-Civil Rights Act ka-19449 futhi kamuva yakhipha imithetho yeNkantolo Ephakeme ukuze iqinisekise ukuhlangana okunenjongo.

Ifa

Brown wayeyikhowe elingokomthetho le-Civil Rights Movement. Yaqeda ubandlululo lwezegebengu kuzo zonke izakhiwo zomphakathi nabashisekeli abaphefumlelwe ukuba bafune ukulingana ekuvoteni, emsebenzini, nasekhefini. Nakuba ukuhlukaniswa ngokohlanga ezikoleni kuyaqhubeka namuhla ngenxa yezici zezezomnotho, isimiso sikaBrown sesimiso sezwe sokuhlukaniswa kohlanga asigunyazi ukuhlukaniswa kwesizwe. Ukufunda umbono ogcwele nge-Oyez.

Udade Wothando Virginia (1967): Ilungelo Lokushada Nanoma Ubani

Isizinda

ILovings j j j ne-WB, yashada eWashington, D.C., ngo-1958. Lapho bebuyela eVirginia, baboshwa ngenxa yokwephula umthetho kahulumeni we-racodeal Perfect, owawephula umthetho wokwahlukana kwezinhlanga. Bagwetshwa unyaka owodwa ejele, baphoswa isigwebo esisekelwe esimweni sokushiya umbuso.

Isinqumo

INkantolo ePhakeme yavumelana ngokulahla imithetho emelene nokungavumelani, iphethe ukuthi umshado uyilungelo eliyisisekelo nokuthi izinhlanga ziwukucubungula okuqinile. IJaji eliyinhloko uWarren labhala: “Inkululeko yokushada sekuyisikhathi eside iqashelwa njengenye yamalungelo omuntu siqu abalulekile abalulekile ekuphishekeleni injabulo." Isinqumo esiphucwe imithetho esele engu-16.

Ithonya

Ukuthanda ukuqeda ukuvinjelwa okungokomthetho komshado wezinhlanga ezihlukahlukene ezweni lonke. Kwamisa futhi uhlelo lwezehlakalo zokulingana komshado zamuva, njengokucabanga kwayo − ukuthi inkululeko yokushada ayinakulinganiselwa ngobandlululo lobuhlanga oluthandwayo(-) lwadluliselwa emibhangqwaneni efanayo e-Obergefell. Kusukela ngo-2024, imishado yezinhlanga ehlanganisa cishe amaphesenti angu-20 ayo yonke imishado emisha e-U.S. [Isikhungo sokucwaninga nge-Prew Research Center [

Isihloko esithi IX NeNkantolo Ephakeme: Ukucwaswa Kwezocansi Emfundweni

Isizinda

Isihloko se-IX seSichibiyelo semfundo sango 1972 senqabela ukucwaswa "ngesisekelo sobulili" kunoma isiphi isimiso semfundo esithola imali kahulumeni. Nakuba kungesona isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme ngokwayo, umthetho ulolongwe ngemithetho echaza izinga lawo.

Icala Eliyisihluthulelo: Idolobha Eliyigrove NeDavis

Grove City College v. Bell [19984], iNkantolo ibekelwe iSihloko se-IX ezimisweni ezithile ezithola izimali zikahulumeni, hhayi zonke izinhlangano. Umbuso wayiguqula lencazelo nge-Civil Rights Reformation Act ka 1988. [[FLT]] Firginlin v. [FLT Counter Public Schools [[FLT:] [1999]] [[FLT]] [FLT Countric] [1992]], iNkavumele izindleko zemali zokucwaswa ngenhloso, kuhlanganise nokuhlukunyezwa ngokobulili ngenhloso. [[FLT] V.Monro County County of Ezes funtion of Education [[FLT:]] [1999] izikolethi ezithiwe yizingaye abafundi abano-ukuhlulwayo.]

Ithonya Kubantu Abahlala Ezindaweni Zokulwa Nakwamanye Amazwe

Isihloko IX saguqula imidlalo yabesifazane: amanani athatha inxaxheba phakathi kwamantombazane asesikoleni esiphakeme aqhuma kusukela ku-1 ku-2 ngo-7 ngo-1971 kuya ku-1 kwababili namuhla. Umthetho futhi uvikela ekucwaseni ukukhulelwa, uqinisekisa ukutholakala kwezinhlelo ze-STEM, futhi eminyakeni yamuva, kuye kwacashunwa ezimpikiswaneni zokuthatha igalelo labafundi abathatha i-transger-gander. INkantolo Ephakeme ayizange inqume ngokuqondile kulendaba, kodwa izinkantolo eziphansi ziyahlukana.

Ilungelo lokuthola ubumfihlo ne-Autonomy

Isizinda

Ngo-1969, "Jane Roe" (Norma McCurdy) wabekela umthetho waseTexas inselele yokuthi ukukhipha isisu kwaphambaniswa ngaphandle kokusindisa ukuphila kukamama. Icala labekwa ummeli uSarah Ligarton, ephikisa ngokuthi umthetho wephula ilungelo lomthetho-mfazi lomuntu wesifazane lokuba angabonwa muntu.

Isinqumo

IJaji uHarry Blackmun wabhala umbono we 7-2, ethola ukuthi i-The

Intuthuko Elandelayo

I-Parenthood v. Casey [1992] yathatha indawo yesimiso esilinganiselwe ngesilinganiso "somthwalo ongafanele" kodwa yaphinde yaqinisekiswa futhi i-Roe's ibambe ingaphakathi. Nokho, uDobs v. Jackson’s Health Organization [ [2022], iNkantolo ilawula ngokuphelele, ibuyisela imithetho yokukhipha isisu ezimisweni. Njengango-2024, cishe ingxenye yezifunda ziye zavinjelwa noma zivinjelwe kakhulu ukukhishwa kwesisu, kuyilapho abanye bevikele ukufinyelela. Isinqumo se-Jackson's Gen's Health Organization [[FLT] [202] Isinqumo sokuveza amalungelo okungalawuleyo nempi yezombangazwe.

Ifa

Intambo ihlala ingesinye sezinqumo eziphikisana kakhulu nezinemiphumela emlandweni waseMelika. Yavuselela kokubili amalungelo okuzala kanye nezinhlangano ezilwa nokukhishwa kwesisu, futhi ukuguqulwa kwayo kubonisa ukuchayeka kwamalungelo okulinganayo ekushintsheni abaphathi abayinhloko. Funda iRoe v. Wade eCornell LII.

UGrutter v. Bollinger (2003): Isinyathelo Esiqinisayo Nesihlukahlukene

Isizinda

Barbara Grutter, umbhexeshi omhlophe onamamaki aphezulu nonokuhlolwa, wanqatshelwa ukuvunyelwa eYunivesithi yaseMichigan Law School. Wamangalela, eveza ukuthi ukusebenzisa kwesikole uhlanga njengesici esibangela ukuvuma ukuthi kwakuphula i-Comement Protection Clause. Isikole somthetho saphikisa ngokuthi indikimba yabafundi ehlukahlukene yayiyisithakazelo esishukumisayo esasifanele ukucabangela uhlanga.

Isinqumo

Justice Sandra Day O'Connor wahola isinqumo esingu-5-4 esasisekela isimiso sesikole somthetho. INkantolo yathi ukufinyelela "umphakathi obucayi" wabafundi abambalwa abamelelwe kwakuyisithakazelo esishukumisayo sikahulumeni, futhi uhlelo lwaluhlotshaniswa kancane ngoba lwalubheka uhlanga njengesici esisodwa kuphela ekubukezeni isayensi. U-O'Connor waveza ithemba lokuthi phakathi neminyaka engu-25, ukuvuma komjaho okungaziwa kwakungasenasidingo.

Bajikijeleka: Abafundi Bezokwethulwa Kwezigebengu Ezilungile (2023)

Ku Izifundiso ze-Fair Adgistracts v. Harvard & UNC [2023], inani elingu-6-3 elithathelwe i-Gritter ewumthetho, eliphethe lesosenzo esisekelwe ekuvumeni kwezinhlanga emakholijini awephula i-Concilimetic Protection Claus. INkantolo yathola ukuthi izinhlelo zokungena ezisemthethweni zazingenayo imigomo engenakulinganiswa futhi zisebenziselwa ubuhlanga. Lesinqumo saqeda ukusetshenziswa kohlanga njengesicici esihoqeshini semfundo ephakeme ekwamusweni eqeshiwe eUnited States, siphoqelele izinhlangano ukuba zifune ezinye izindlela zokuvikela izinhlobonhlobo njengokukhetha okungokonganciphiwe kwezomnotho nokuncintiswa kwezindawo.

Ithonya

Ifa likaGrutter manje selingokomlando kunokuba libopha, kodwa lathonya amashumi amabili eminyaka ezinqubo zokuvuma. Isinqumo sika-2023 kulindeleke ukuba sinciphise ukuhlukahluka kobuhlanga ezikoleni ezikhethayo, ikakhulukazi kubafundi abamnyama nabanspanoni. ukuhlaziya kwe-SCOTUSblog [ imininingwane yemiphumela yesinqumo.

I-United States v. Windsor (2013): Ukuqashelwa kwe-Federal of Friear - Sex Dage

Isizinda

I-Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), eyasayinwa emthetho ngo-1996, yachazwa ngokuthi ukushada njengesibopho phakathi kwendoda nomfazi oyedwa ngenjongo kahulumeni. U-Edith Windsor washada noThea Spyer e-Ontario, eCanada, ngo- 2007. Lapho uSpinder efa, uWindsor waphoqeleka ukuba akhokhe imali engaphezu kuka-R350 000 ezintelani zikahulumeni zezwe ngoba uhulumeni akazange awuqaphele umshado wabo. Wafaka icala lokuthenga i-frend.

Isinqumo

IJaji u-Anthony Kennedy wabhala umbono ka-5-4, eshaya i-Candelo 3 leDOMA njengesephulo sokuvikela okufanayo. Inkantolo yacabanga ukuthi i-DOMA "isho ukukhetha kokuziphatha nokuhlanganyela ubulili" yemibhangqwana efanayo futhi yabeka "isigma" kubantwana bayo. Isinqumo asizange sifune ukuba kuvunyelwe ukushada okuxekethile kodwa sasifuna ukuba uhulumeni uqaphele imishado evunyelwe ngokomthetho.

Ithonya

Windsor kwakuyisinyathelo esibalulekile esiholela ekulinganani komshado, okwenza ukuba imibhangqwana eshadile engokobulili obufanayo ithole izinzuzo zikahulumeni ezinjengenzuzo yenhlala- kahle, amalungelo okufuduka, nokubekwa kwentela. Kwamisa futhi iqophelo le Oberge lawa ngokusungula ukuthi imishado yemibhangqwana efanayo engokobulili yayinomthetho sisekelo.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo lomshado ofanayo no-Scodex

Isizinda

I-Purse Windsor, izinkantolo zikahulumeni eziningana zagadla inkantolo yesifundazwe evinjelwe umshado owenziwe ngokwezibopho. Amacala aseMichigan, e-Ohio, eKentucky, naseTennessee aqiniswa ngaphansi [[FL:0] obergefell v. Hodges. uJim Obergefell wafuna ukuba abekwe njengomngane womshado oseleyo esitifiketini sokufa somyeni wakhe e-Ohio.

Isinqumo

UMahluleli uKennedy waphinde wabhalela iningi elingu-5-44, ekholelwa ukuthi ilungelo lokushada liyilungelo eliyisisekelo eliqinisekiswe yi-Curvery Procession ne-Amement Claus Protection. Isinqumo sapheshulwa kuvinjelwa uhulumeni ezindaweni ezingu-14 futhi kwadingeka ukuba zonke izifundazwe zivume futhi ziqaphele imishado efanayo ehlangeneyo engokobulili. Kennedy wabhala: "Ayikho isibopho esinzulu kakhulu kunomshado, ngoba sihlanganisa izinhloso eziphakeme kakhulu zothando, ukwethembeka, ukuzinikela, umhlatshelo, nomndeni.”

Izinselele Ezithintayo Neziqhubekayo

Obergefell wandisa ilungelo lokushada nemibhangqwana engokobulili obufanayo ezweni lonke, wathola ukwamukelwa kabanzi komphakathi ngokuhamba kwesikhathi. Nokho, ngemva kwesinqumo samaDobbs ngo-2022, uMahluleli uThomas wasikisela ekuvumeni ukuthi u-Obergefell kufanele aphinde athathwe kabusha, abangele ukwesaba phakathi kwe-LGBTQ+ abasekeli. [FLT:] UKhomishano waphendula ngokudlulisa iSpenis act [20222], waqinisekisa uhulumeni ukuqashelwa kwemishado olufanayo nolwesizwe. Noma kunjalo, ukushintshela kweNkadedeli yezeko lokuzinza kwemithetho eqinile, ukushiya ukungaguquguquki kwesikhathi eside seObergefe kungaqinisekile. [[FLT:]

Bostock v. Clayton County (2020): Ukuvikela iLGBTQ+ Izisebenzi

Isizinda

UGerald Bostock waxoshwa emsebenzini wakhe njengomxhumanisi wezenhlalakahle yezingane ngemva nje kokuba eqale ukuhlanganyela eqenjini lobungqingili lokuzilibazisa. Umbuzo wawuthi iSihloko VII seSivumelo samalungelo abantu sango-1964, esivimbela ukucwaswa "ngenxa yobulili," sivikela ongqingili nezisebenzi ezidlulisa abathengisi.

Isinqumo

IJaji uNeil Gorfo wanikeza umbono oyisithupha-3 okholelwa ukuthi ubandlululo olusekelwe ekubukekeni kobulili noma ukuvelela okungalawuleki kungokobandlululo "ngenxa yobulili." INkantolo yacabanga ukuthi umqashi odubula umuntu ngamabomu ngokuba ngungqingili noma u-trangender akanakugwema icala ngokuveza ubulili. Lo mbhali wemibhalo wamangaza abaningi, njengoba uGormoth engowandisa isigaba esivamile.

Ithonya

Bostock wavikela ngokushesha i-LGBTQ+ izisebenzi ezweni lonke, zisebenzisa bonke abaqashi abanezisebenzi okungenani ezingu-15. Yaba nemiphumela eguquguqukayo nakwezinye izingxenye zomthetho, njengokunakekela impilo nezindlu, lapho kunemithetho efanayo yokungavumelani ngokobulili. Izinkantolo eziphansi ziye zahlukana ngokuthi incazelo kaBostock isebenza ku-Title IX, okuholela ekungeniseni ngokuqhubekayo kwabasubathi abadlulisayo nakungena endlini yangasese.

Isiphetho: Ukuziphendukela Okuqhubekayo Kwamalungelo Okulingana

Izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme eziphawula ukulingana kwamalungelo zibonisa kokubili amandla nokungalawuleki kwencazelo yomthetho-sisekelo. Kusukela kuBrown kuya kuBostock, iNkantolo ngezinye izikhathi iye yasebenza njengomlindi woshintsho lwezenhlalo, ikalisha nge-grackck ukuze yandise incazelo yesivikelo esifanayo. Kodwa i-tradigry ayishoshoshoshozeli: u-Roe wajikijelwa, uGreath wabekwa i-de, futhi u-Oberge wabhekana nezinsongo ezingase zingenzeka. Isizukulwane ngasinye sokwahlulela siletha amafilosofi amasha, futhi inqubo yeNkantolo yeNkantolo ingaveza imiphumela ephawulekayo.

Ukuqonda lezi zinqumo kubalulekile ekuqapheleni ukuhlelwa komthetho olinganayo waseMelika. Zinikeza uhlelo olungokomthetho lokwahlulela okuqhubekayo kwesizwe, ubulili, inkululeko yokuzalana, noma amalungelo e-LGBTQ. Njengoba kuvela izimpikiswano ezintsha, kusukela ekukhetheni ukuhlakanipha kokwenziwa kuya ekukhululweni kwenkolo, izimiso ezibekwe kulokhu ziyoqhubeka zihlolwa futhi, lapho kudingekile, zikhona. Umzabalazo wokulingana awupheli; uthuthukile, ukubusa okukodwa okungokophawu lwenkolo.