Ntchito ya Mfumu Yadziko Yogwirizana Potetezera Mfumu ya Boma

Chitetezero cha boma ndi chiphunzitso chalamulo chobisika chimene zitetezero zimaletsa kusutidwa m'makhoti a boma lina popanda chilolezo. Mfundo imeneyi, yoikidwa kwambiri m'madongosolo a boma monga United States, imagwira ntchito monga chitetezo chokhwima chotetezera chuma cha boma ndi kuteteza ulamuliro wa maboma m'dziko. Mwakuletsa makhoti alamulo odzifunira, kutsimikizira kuti maboma angathe kuyang'anira chuma chawo, chuma, ndi ntchito za anthu popanda kusokonezeka ndi kusokonezeka maganizo. Komabe, chiphunzitsocho sichonse; kugwirira ntchito kwake kwakhala kolimba kwa zaka mazana ambiri kwa jurisprudensi, kuyambitsa mikangano yokhudza kuŵerengera mlandu, chiweruzo, ndi kulinganiza kwa mphamvu pakati pa ulamuliro wa boma. Kuzindikira kuyang'anira chuma cha mbiri yakale, malamulo, zigwirizano zalamulo, ndi kutetezera chuma cha boma.

Kumvetsetsa Umodzi wa Boma Lolamulira

Mfundo yakuti ulamuliro wodzilamulira unayamba ndi lamulo la Chingelezi, kumene mfumu siingaperekedwe ku khoti lake chifukwa chakuti koronayo anali gwero la lamulo ndipo sanali kufikiridwa. Lingaliro limeneli linapita ku maiko a ku America ndipo, pambuyo pa kudziimira, linatengedwa ndi boma. Chiphunzitsochi chimadalira pa mfundo yakuti dziko lolamulira ndi "kayatha mtundu, boma, kapena fuko, kapena chitetezero ku ufulu wake pokhapokha ngati lilola kusudzulidwa. Ku United States, boma lolamulira limateteza boma lililonse kusamutsidwira ku bwalo la boma kapena mabwalo a boma lina popanda chilolezo chake. Chisungiko chimenechi chimagwira ntchito yoperekedwa ndi anthu audindo, mabungwe a boma, ngakhale mayiko ena, ngakhale kuti alipo.

Chiphunzitso chimodzi chofala nchakuti kutetezera dziko kumangotetezera boma. Kwenikweni, chimafikira mabungwe a boma, madipatimenti, ndi akuluakulu ogwira ntchito m'maudindo awo alamulo. Komabe, sichimatetezera maboma akwawo kapena makampani, zimene zimalingaliridwa kukhala magaŵano a boma ndipo zingasunthidwe pansi pa mikhalidwe ina. Chiphunzitsocho sichingatetezedwe ndi opatutsa, opatutsa, ndi opatutsa malamulo. Mwachitsanzo, maboma angavomereze kugwirizana ndi malamulo amene amalola poyera, kapena mwa kuloŵa m'mapangano amene amatsutsa. Ndiponso, Nyumba za malamulo zikhoza kuletsa ulamuliro wa boma pochita ntchito yake pansi pa mphamvu za U. Khoti Lapamwamba la U. Khoti Lapamwamba laika malire pa kukhoza kukhazikitsa mphamvu imeneyi, makamaka pansi pa kukhazikitsa malamulo.

Maziko a Malamulo ndi Milandu Yaikulu

Malamulo a chitetezero cha boma ku United States azikidwa pa Demendment ya khumi ndi limodzi ya Malamulo, koma mizu yake imafika pansi. Pasanakhale Demendment ya 11, Bwalo Lapamwamba linazindikira kuti boma linali ndi ufulu wodzilamulira pansi pa lamulo wamba. Mlandu wa Chajolm v. Georgia [1793] [1793] anadabwitsa maboma pamene Khoti linalola suti ndi nzika ya South Carolina kutsutsana ndi Georgia. Poyankha, Nyumba ya malamulo ya dziko la Nambala inapitirira mwamsanga, imene imaletsa makhoti amve maukwati a boma lotsutsa boma la boma lina kapena dziko lachilendo. Mpatuko, pomakulitsa mphamvu yolimbana ndi ufulu wa kutsutsa boma la nzika zake mwa kulongosola lamulo la boma la bomalo, monga lamulo lolamulira lolamulira bwino.

Nkhani yotchuka imene inavumbula ukulu wa ufulu wodzilamulira m'nkhani za chuma cha boma ndiyi . Dept. ya Revenuevv v. Kurth Ranch , 511 U.S.777]. Mlanduwuwu unanena kuti dongosolo la malamulo la msonkho wa mankhwala oletsa msonkho wa msonkho wa boma lokhudzana ndi ndalama za boma silingatsutsidwe m'khoti la boma pansi pa Banki chifukwa chakuti Kusintha kwa Khumi, kukana lamulo la Earth Remetic Remetic Reconsole kusokoneza sut. Khotilo linalingalira kuti kulola liwolo lalamulolo kuletsa ntchito yake ya kulipira ndalama. Chigamu chimenechi chinalimbikitsa lamulo lakuti lamulolo silikuletsa kuyesa kapena kutsutsa ndalama zawo za boma, ndalama, ndi kulipira ndalama za boma lopanda chilo.

Chigamulo china chofunika kwambiri ndicho Suminole Tribun of Florida v. Florida (1996]), kumene khoti linagamula kuti Congress silingaletse ufulu wa boma kugwiritsa ntchito mfundo zachigamulo za malamulo okha; Chigawo 5 chokha cha Kusintha kwa Zachikale kungapatse mphamvu Nyumba za Malamulo kuti zigonjetse chitetezero cha boma. Nkhani imeneyi inachepetsa kwambiri mphamvu ya Congressbon ya ku malamulo a boma ku malamulo a boma monga Indiyam Gameleacate Act. Nkhani monga [[FLT:] Ald v. Maine. [1999] Kulingalira kumeneku ku khoti la khoti, kumakhalanso ndi malamulo apadera m’mabwalo awo a boma pokhazika m’mabwalo awo.

Malamulo a Maboma ndi Kugaŵikana kwa Mfumu Yadziko: Mpambo wa Khumi ndi Lasanu ndi Lasanu ndi limodzi wa Amereka

Demendment ya khumi ndi limodzi ndi khumi ndi limodzi ndi ikuluikulu ya malamulo a boma otetezera ufulu wa dziko m'lamulo. Lemba lake limati: “Mphamvu ya Chiweruziro cha United States sidzalingaliridwa kukhala yopereka ku msiti uliwonse wa lamulo kapena kutsata, yoyambitsidwa kapena kuimbidwa mlandu ndi nzika za United States za Boma lina, kapena ya nzika kapena ya nzika za Boma lililonse la Dziko Lakunja. [1] Ngakhale kuti kukonzanso kwa lamulo la boma lapamwamba la kutetezera anthu a bomalo latembenuzidwa ndi nzika za boma. Kumasulira kumeneku kwakhala kotsutsana ndi otsutsa kuti kupyola chinenero chomveka cha dzikolo.

Demendment ya khumi ndi limodzi siikupanga bat yokha; pali kusiyana koŵerengeka kodziŵika. Choyamba, boma lingavomereze kusudzulidwa ndi kutetezeredwa kwa chitetezo. Wowawa ayenera kukhala womvekera bwino ndi wosabisa, kaŵirikaŵiri kuchitidwa kupyolera mwa malamulo a boma amene amapanga chochititsa cha boma kapena mwa kuonekera modzifunira m'bwalo. Chachiŵiri, Nyumba za Malamulo zingapereke chitetezo cha boma cholamulira chokhala ndi ulamuliro pamene ikhazikitsa lamulo loletsa Kusintha kwa 1448, monga malamulo oletsa kusankhana kapena kutetezera ufulu wa kusankhitsa. Komabe, Khoti lafuna kuti Nyumba ya Malamulo ipange cholinga chake cha “kuwonekeratu bwino kwa " m'chinenero chalamulo. Chachitatu, chiphunzitso cha [FUT:] Kuzemba] Mbali ya Young [FLD: 0] (190) kuletsa malamulo oletsa kuphwanya lamulo. Komabe, khoti la boma la chigamu cha chigamu cha chigamu cha chigamu cha chika cha chigamu.

Kupatula kumeneku n’kotsutsa kukhazikitsa ufulu wa boma ndi malamulo a malo. Mwachitsanzo, nzika ingapereke mlandu kwa mkulu wa boma kuti iletse boma kukhazikitsa lamulo losaimira boma, ndipo mkulu wa boma sangadzitetezere chifukwa chakuti suti ili yosagonjetsedwa ndi bwanamkubwayo, osati chisungiko cha boma. Komabe, Ex pareve Young salola masuti kaamba ka ziwopsezo za ndalama zotsutsana ndi boma, zimene zimakhalabe zoletsedwa popanda chivomerezo cha boma.

Kutetezeredwa kwa Maboma: Mmene Mfumu Yaikazi Imatetezera Chuma Chapoyera

Imodzi ya ntchito zothandiza kwambiri ya chitetezo cha boma chodzilamulira ndiyo kutetezera chuma chalamulo, ndalama za boma, ndi mitsinje ya ndalama , ndi ndalama . Kugwirizana, kupha, kapena kulanda kukwaniritsa zofuna zaumwini. Popanda chitetezo chimenechi, maboma angakakamizidwe kuchotsa ndalama za okhometsa msonkho kuti apereke zigamulo zochokera ku milandu, zimene zingasokoneze mautumiki ofunika a anthu monga maphunziro, zomanga nyumba, ndi chitetezo cha anthu. Motero chiphunzitsocho chimakhazikitsa chuma kuchokera ku ku ku kuphwa kwamwadzifunira, kutsimikizira kuti ndalama za bomazo zikhalabe pansi pa ulamuliro wa akuluakulu osankhidwa m'boma mmalo mwa malamulo a bwalo lamilandu.

Chitetezero chimafikira ku mzera waukulu wa zinthu. Nyumba za boma, malo, magalimoto, zida, ndipo ngakhale zinthu zosadziŵika monga mapangano ndi zizindikiro zingatetezedwe kwa okongoletsa. Chotetezera cholamulira chimabisanso ndalama zapadera, monga ndalama za penshoni, inshuwalansi ya ulova, ndi masheya a inshuwalansi a boma. Mokulira, chiphunzitsochi chimagwira ntchito osati kokha kutsogolera boma komanso kuyesa kugwirizanitsa katundu wa boma monga chitetezo pa gulu la anthu ongowaimira. Mwachitsanzo, ngati nyumba ya katangale yapeza chiŵeruzo ku bungwe la boma, iye sangatenge nyumba za boma kapena mabanki a boma popanda kuvomereza kwa boma. Lamulo limeneli limagwiritsidwa ntchito m'dziko lonse ndi malamulo a boma ambiri, ndipo limapereka njira zoloza kuweruza za boma, kapena kuvomereza boma nthaŵi zambiri.

Chiyambukiro chopindulitsa ndicho kuchepetsa mitundu ya mankhwala opezeka ndi maboma. Pamene kuli kwakuti anthu angapereke chilolezo kwa akuluakulu a boma kaamba ka kuchepetsa kapena kuwonongeka kwa malamulo a boma ngati boma lili ndi chitetezo, iwo sakhoza kupereka ziweruzo modzipereka pa chuma cha boma. Mmalomwake, akunena kuti agwirizana kulipira zigamulo kuchokera ku zigamulo zoikidwa kapena ku njira zoloza ku boma. Maboma ena akhazikitsa ndalama zonena kuti zikhoza kusamalira zopimira zopimira, koma ndalama zimenezi nzodzifunira ndi zoperekedwa ndi malamulo a boma. Motero, otetezera aulamuliro akupereka chiŵiya champhamvu kuti ayang'ane ndi kuwonongeka kwa zinthu ndi kugwiritsa ntchito ndalama.

Zolephera ndi Kusuliza kwa Kugawana Kwachifumu

Ngakhale kuti m’mbiri yakale inakhala ndi mbiri yake yosasamala, kuteteza ulamuliro wa boma kwakhala ndi chisulizo chachikulu. Otsutsa amanena kuti chiphunzitsochi chingatetezere ku maulamuliro, makamaka pamene maboma aswa malamulo a ufulu wa anthu kapena kuvulaza mwa kunyalanyaza. Mwachitsanzo, ngati mkulu wa ndende agwiritsira ntchito mphamvu yochuluka polimbana ndi mkaidi, wodwalayo satha kulipira boma chifukwa chakuti boma silitha kuteteza chitetezo cha munthu wolephera kuteteza ufuluwo. Mofananamo, masoka a malo okhala opangidwa ndi mabungwe a boma monga kutayidwa kwa nyumba ya boma popanda kulipira anthu popanda kulipira boma.

Malingaliro ameneŵa achititsa kuti pakhale kusintha. Akatswiri ena a zamalamulo amachirikiza njira yochepetsera ufulu wa munthu, akumati cholinga choyamba cha Kusintha kwa Zamphumphu kwa khumi ndi chimodzi chinangoletsa ufulu wa kusiyanasiyana, osati masuti a boma. Ena amanena kuti Alden v. Maine chigamulo, chimene chinawonjezera kutetezeredwa ku makhoti, chinapanga: woyang'anira ufulu wa boma angasunge kampani yaumwini koma osati boma lotsutsana ndi kuswa, ngakhale pamene boma litengamo mbali m'zamalonda. Kusiyanako, kumene kumagwira ntchito zina (mofanana ndi lamulo lotsutsana ndi lamulo laudindo lalamulo), kumasonyeza kuti makhoti ali ofunitsitsa kuyendetsa galimoto m’malo mwa makampani amalonda. Komabe, Suptkulung’ono amatsutsa chiwopsezo cha malonda.

Ngati munthu wachita zinthu monyalanyaza kapena mwadala, boma likhoza kuchotsapo m’thumba, ndipo ngati anthu otetezedwawo achitapo kanthu, ndiye kuti alephera kuthana ndi vutoli.

Zimene Zachitika Posachedwapa Ndiponso Kulinganiza Uchifumu ndi Chiweruzo

Malo a chitetezo cha boma otetezera ufulu wa munthu akupitirizabe kusintha pamene makhoti akulimbana ndi mavuto atsopano. M’zaka zaposachedwapa, Khoti Lalikulu latsimikiziranso mphamvu ya chiphunzitsocho pamene likulongosolanso bwino malire ake. Mwachitsanzo, mu [FLT: 0] Allen v. Cooper [20], khoti linaona kuti Court siingatetezetse ufulu wa boma pansi pa mfundo za Copyblic Classie pogwiritsa ntchito mfundo I, kuswa Copy Concediciation Act . Chigamulochi chinatseke kuletsa kuswa malamulo a chilolezo, ngakhale pamene maboma anapindula ndi ntchito zovomerezeka zovomerezeka. Khotilo linagalamu linagamula kuti “silinga la anthu wamba ndi malamulo a boma la boma silikuteteza.

Komabe, si zosankha zonse zaposachedwapa zimene zikugwirizana ndi. mu Dipatimenti ya Safety ya Texas (2022]), Khoti Lalikulu linapeza kuti likuvomereza motsimikiza kuti likuvomereza pamene akuvomereza ndalama za boma pa maprogramu a boma amene amathandizira kuti munthu wodwalayo atetezedwe. Mlanduwuwu unaphatikizapo wogwira ntchito yolimbana ndi boma la Texas Safety ya Unity for the Rective Services Works and Rescrectment Rights Act (USSRA). Khotilo linakhulupirira kuti mwa kulandira ndalama za boma kaamba ka maprogramumboni a ntchito, Texas inawononga chitetezo chitetezero chake kwa Selfarstra. Chigamuchimochichichichichi chikusonyeza kuti bungwe la United States likhozabe kukhazikitsa malamulo otsutsa malamulo a boma pogwirizanitsa malamulo a bungwe lopereka chilo.

Makhoti a boma alimbananso ndi mphamvu ya kuteteza zinthu zaumbuye. Makhoti ena aakulu awonjezera mlandu mwa kumasulira malamulo oteteza thupi, pamene ena ali ndi oletsa kwambiri. Mwachitsanzo, khoti Lapamwamba la California lanena kuti mawu a Tort Agict akugwira ntchito mokulira ku mkhalidwe wa kuopsa wa katundu wa anthu, pamene makhoti a m’mayiko ena alamula kuti kuchotsa chipale chofewa pamisewu kuli ntchito yodzitetezera yodzitetezera ku masewero. Malamulowa amapangitsa zotsatira zosadziŵika bwino ndi kugogomezera kufunika kwa mgwirizano wa boma.

Malingaliro a Padziko Lonse pa Kugwirizana Kolamulira

United States siili yokha yozindikira kutetezeredwa kwa ulamuliro wa boma; madongosolo ambiri a boma ali ndi ziphunzitso zotsutsa. Ku Australia, maboma ali ndi ufulu wokana kuvala zovala pansi pa lamulo wamba, ngakhale kuti Nyumba Yamilandu ingazigonjetse. Khoti Lapamwamba la Australia mu Commonwealth v. Evans Deakin Inctionristry Ltd (1986) adakhulupirira kuti kutetezedwa kwa boma sikuli kotheratu ndipo kungagwiritsiridwe ndi chinenero chomveka bwino. Mofananamo, madera a ku Canada amasunga zisungero ku zilungamo popanda lamulo lopereka, koma makhoti akhala ndi mkhalidwe wotsutsana ndi Charti ya ufulu wa Canada ndi ufulu.

Mu European Union, mamembala ambiri sagwirizana ndi lamulo la boma lotetezera dziko, koma lamulo la EU limaika zoletsa zazikulu. Khoti la European Court of Justice lagamula kuti mamembala alingaliridwe kulangidwa ndi kuswedwa kwa lamulo la EU, kuchirikiza kwambiri chitetezo cha ufulu m'nkhani zina. Kulinganiza kumeneku kumasonyeza kulinganiza kosiyana pakati pa ulamuliro wa boma ndi ufulu wa munthu aliyense payekha, kukumaŵerengera mlandu pa ufulu wa munthu. Kuyerekezera ndi dongosolo la U.S. kumagogomezera ukulu wa kudzipereka kwa dziko la America ku ulamuliro wa kuuchifumu wosiyana, kumene maboma amasunga chitetezo chachikulu ngakhale pamene akuswa lamulo la boma.

Mapangano a malonda a mitundu yonse ndi oikizira agwirizananso ndi odzilamulira. Mayiko amene amasaina mapangano a zandalama kaŵirikaŵiri amaletsa kutchinjiriza mapangano a kusungitsa ndalama kuti alandire mphoto, kugonjera ku chigamulo cha mkangano. United States inde ikuvomereza kugwirizana ndi Mfumu Yadziko lina Immunion Act kaamba ka ntchito zake zamalonda kunja, koma chitetezo cha boma chimakhala chosasiyana. Kumvetsetsa mapangano ameneŵa a maiko onse kumathandiza kugwirizanitsa chiphunzitso cha Amereka ndi mikangano yokhudza kusintha.

Zovuta Zothandiza pa Kuyang’anira Boma

Kwa osunga chuma a boma, maloya wamkulu, ndi mabwana a chuma, odzilamulira ali chiŵiya chowopsa cha kusungitsa ngozi. Kudziŵa kuti chuma chamwambo kaŵirikaŵiri sichimatetezeredwa ndi kugwirizanitsa kumaboma kumalola maboma kudziloŵetsa m'kulinganiza kwa nthaŵi yaitali, kubwereka ndalama pa ziwongola dzanja zochepera chifukwa chakuti okongoletsawo sangathe kutenga katundu wa boma, ndi kuikizira zinthu popanda kuopa kutaya chuma. Komabe, chitetezo chimenechi chimatanthauzanso kuti maboma ayenera kukhala okangalika kukhazikitsa njira zodzifunira kuti asunge mwalamulo ndi kupeŵa kutaya chuma cha boma.

Maboma amene amagwira ntchito makampani aakulu a malonda . monga ngati masitolo a moŵa woyendera boma, malotale, kapena ma thirot , afunikire kudziŵa za zinthu zina zimene zingapangitse chitetezo cha thupi pamene aloŵa m'makampani a proprietary mmalo mwa ntchito za boma. Mwachitsanzo, Federal Tort Apenits Act samagwira ntchito m'boma, koma boma lifunikira kuletsa machitidwe otetezera ntchito zamalonda. Makhoti m’maiko ena akhulupirira kuti kugwira ntchito yotchovera thaki kapena kosi ya golobo kuli ntchito ya propie, kuvumbula bomalo kukhala ndi mlandu wofanana ndi bizinesi yaumwini. Zimenezi zimafunikira kusamala kwalamulo ndi kuyang'anira.

Kulingalira kwina kothandiza kuli kugwirizana pakati pa kudzitetezera kwa kudziimira ndi kulephera kwa ndalama. Pamene mafaelo a boma kaamba ka kulephera kwa ndalama . Ndiko kamodzi, monga momwe mutu 9 umatetezera boma ku makampani . . Chitetezero cha boma chimatetezera ku zinthu zina. Komabe, Bankruptic Code imaphatikizapo makonzedwe amene amathetsa chitetezo cha thupi pa nkhani zapadera, monga ngati kupeŵa zofuna. Kurth Ranch mlandu wokha unabuka chifukwa cha kulephera kulephera kulephera, kugogomezera kutsutsana pakati pa misonkhongo ya boma ndi lamulo lopanda ndalama za boma.

Mtsogolo: Kusintha Zinthu Kapena Kulimbitsa?

Tsogolo la kutetezera dziko kwa ufulu wa kudziimira pa liwongo lidzakhala ndi kulimbana kopitirizabe pakati pa magulu a boma ndi mlandu. Pambali imodzi, Khoti Lalikulu lamakono likuwonekera kukhala lodzipereka ku kutetezera kolimba kwa boma, monga momwe kwawonera mu Allen v. Cooper ndi [FLT]] [[FLT]] TORress [[[FLT:]] [[FLT]] [3] [malamulo] (pakuti, mosasamala kanthu za kuchepetsa mphamvu ya kutetezera kwa lamulo, zinatsimikiziranso chiphunzitso chachikulucho). Pambali ina, chitsende, chitsendekere chapo cha anthu oyang'anirapo zoyesayesa za kuletsa kutetezera zinthu zina, ndi chiweruzo cha malo otetezeredwa. Maiko ena akulingalira kale kuti ayese kulinganiza zinthu zina, ndi kuyesa kukhazikitsa malamulo atsopano, ngakhale kuti ziwone.

Mbali ina ya kusintha kothekera ndiyo kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kwa otetezera thupi ku luso la zopangapanga kutulukira. Mwachitsanzo, kugwiritsa ntchito kwa boma kwa luntha lopanga kupanga zosankha zimene zimavulaza anthu kulingana ndi ? Chiphunzitso chamakono chimapereka lingaliro lakuti ntchito za luntha zikhalabe zotetezereka, koma pamene A ikhala yofala, makhoti angafunikire kupendanso malire a “kulephera.” Mofananamo, akunena kuti kuchita ntchito zopeka kungakumane ndi mafunso ovuta kwambiri oteteza thupi. Akatswiri a zamalamulo anena kuti “avomereze kuyenerana ndi boma monga mkhalidwe wa kutengamo mbali m'maprogramutoko, koma njira imeneyo ingachititsenso nkhaŵa ponena za kukakamiza ndi kuyendetsa zinthu ndi kuchita zinthu.

Pomaliza, kuteteza ulamuliro wa boma kudakali chiphunzitso chofunika kwambiri chimene chimateteza chuma cha boma ndi ulamuliro. Chimateteza chuma cha boma koma si chopanda zophophonya. Kupitirizabe kukangana kwa lamulo kumafuna kuyeretsa kugwiritsa ntchito kwake kutsimikizira kuti maboma ali ndi mlandu pamene akusunga mphamvu yawo ya kulamulira bwino. Kaya mwa zigamulo za chiweruzo, kusintha kwa malamulo, kapena kuletsa kwa boma, kulinganiza pakati pa otetezera ndi odziŵerengera mlandu kudzapitirizabe kukonza chitetezo cha chuma cha boma kwa zaka zambiri zikubwera.

[[FLT: 0] Kuŵerenga kowonjezereka: [[FLT :1] [[FLT .S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [[FLT.94] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .