Sangano Rebumbiro reMitemo Rokuhwirudzura

Kuhwirudzura dare kunomirira chimwe chezvishandiso zvine simba zvikurusa mugadziriro yemitemo yeAmerica, kuchigonesa matare kunzvera mitemo nezviito zvehurumende zvinopesana nezvinodikanwa zveBumbiro remitemo. Nepo Bumbiro reMitemo risingapi chiremera ichochi zvakajeka, Dare rapamusoro rakashandisa simba iri chifo chama1800, kuzvigadza rimene sebazu rakaenzana rinokwanisa kunzvera zvose zviri zviviri Congress neGumist. Gadziriro iyi inovimbisa kuti mabasa ose ehurumende arambe ari mukati memiganhuro yebumbiro-mitemo, ichidzivirira gadziriro huru yehurumende yeAmerica yokutonga.

Simba rehwirudzuro yedare rinotambanukira kupfuura kungonzvera bedzi mitemo yehurumende. Mitemo yehurumende, mitemo yomunzvimbomo, mirairo yavakuru vakuru, mirau yokutarisira, uye kunyange zviito zvavakuru vakuru vehurumende zvose zvinowira mukati moukuru hwenzvero yebumbiro remitemo. Apo Dare Rapamusoro zvikurusa rinosarudza kuti chipi nechipi cheizvi zviito chinoputsa Bumbiro remitemo, chinogona kuizivisa kuva isina maturo, kuchidzivisa nenzira inobudirira kuchengetwa kwavo.

Chiremera ichi chinoshanda secherekedzo huru yedare redare mukati megadziriro yokuparadzana kwamasimba. Pasina kuhwirudzurwa kwokutonga, Congress ingagona kupfuudza mitemo inoputsa maruramiro makuru, uye Purezidhendi aigona kuita zviito zvinopfuura chiremera chebumbiro remitemo, pasina mutumbi wakazvimirira unowanika kugovera mushonga. Simba rokududzira Bumbiro remitemo ndokuita kuti ganhuriro dzaro dzive nechokwadi chokuti mapazi ose matatu anoshanda mukati memadenderedzwa azvo.

Mark Case: Marbury kana kuti Madison

Nheyo yehwirudzuro yedare inotevedza mavambo ayo kunhau yeDare Gurusa Marbury v. Madison, iyo inoramba iri chimwe chezvisarudzo zvinokosha zvikurusa muAmerican jurisprudence. Mhaka yacho yakabva munyongano yezvamatongerwe enyika yakapoteredza kuchinja pakati paPrezidhendi John Adams naPrezidhendi Thomas Jefferson. Mumazuva okupedzisira eutarisi yaAdhama, Congress akagadzira nzvimbo itsva dzinoverengeka, uye Adhama akagadzwa vatsigiri vakavimbika veHurumende kuti vadzike, kubatanidza William Marbury.

Apo Thomas Jefferson akatora basa, Munyori wake weHurumende, James Madison, akaramba kupa Marbury kosi. Marbury akakumbira Dare Rapamusoro-soro nokuda kwekunatswa kwemandamumus, murairo wedare unoda Madison kuti ape mutongo. Mutongi mukuru John Marshall akatarisana nechinetso chakaoma chezvamatongerwe enyika: kuraira dare reJefferson kuti riite chiito chokusatendeseka, nepo kuramba murairo kwaizokarakadza utera hwedare.

Chigadzikiso chaMarshall chakachenjera chakavamba hwaro hwehwirudzuro. Iye akadavira kuti Marbury akanga ane maruramiro kubasa rake, asi kuti Dare Rapamusoro-soro rakanga risina simba rokunzwa nhau yacho zvakananga mugadziriro dzapakuvamba dzeBumbiro reMitemo. Chikamu 13 chaMashoko eJudiciary ra 1789, icho chakakarakadzwa kupa chiremera cheDare rapamusorosoro mumhaka dzakadaro, chakaputsa Bumbiro reMitemo uye naizvozvo chakanga chisina maturo.

Mumufungo wake, Marshall akataura nheyo huru yokuti "ndiyo purovhinzi nebasa redhipatimendi rinotonga zvakasimba kutaura chiri mutemo. ” Uku kurangarira kwakabvumikisa kuti matare ane chiremera chokududzira Bumbiro remitemo uye kuramba kuisa mitemo inopesana naro. Chisarudzo chacho chakasimbisa nenzira yokuchenjera nzvimbo yedare redare pasina kunangana zvakananga nebazu guru, kuchiumba muenzaniso usingagumi nokuda kwokuhwirudzurwa kwokutonga.

Kushanda Kunoita Kuhwirudzura

Kunzwisisa kuti mitemo uye zviito izvi zvinokosha sei kuti tinzwisise kuti Dare Repamusorosoro rinoshandisa sei simba raro rokuongorora mitemo uye kuti ringaongorora sei.

Zvinodikanwa Zvakamira

Dare Rapamusoro risati ragona kuhwirudzura, papati inodenha mutemo inofanira kuratidzira kumira: kuvadziko yakakotsekana, yakanyanya iyo inorondwa kuchiito chakadenhwa uye sezvingabvira ichagadziriswa nechisarudzo chakanaka. Ichi chinodikanwa chinodzivisa matare kubudisa mirangariro yenhema kana kuti kupedza gakava. Nhau dzechokwadi bedzi negakava zvinokwaniriswa nokuda kwenzvero yedare, kuvimbisa kuti matare anosarudza bedzi rwisano chaidzo dzomutemo nemiuyo chaiyoiyo.

Kutsvedza Nokuzvitutumadza

Matare anodawo kuti nyaya dzive dzakanyatsokwana kuti dzidzokororwe, kureva kuti kukuvara kunofanira kunge kwakaitika kana kuti kwave pedyo, kwete kungofungidzira chete, nyaya yacho inozopera kana kusawirirana kwacho kukaitika kana kuti mamiriro ezvinhu achinja zvokuti chisarudzo chedare hachizokanganisi magakava aripo, uye kupesana kunofanira kutoitwa.

Kufadza Kwazvinoita

Nyaya zhinji dzinosvika kuDare Gurusa nomuitiro wedare, kuvamba mumatare akaderera. Chikamu chinodenha kumira mumutemo webumbiro remitemo inowirirana nenhau mudare reruwa, umo mutongi anonzwa ufakazi nenharo dzapamutemo. Vari kurasikirwa vangakwirira kudare redunhu rakakodzera rekukwirira, uye kubva ipapo vangakumbira Dare Rapamusorosoro nokuda kwechibvumirano checertiorari. Dare rinopa certoririari bedzi apo vanenge vatongi vana vanobvumirana kunzwa nhau yacho, vachisarudza inenge 1 muzana yezviuru zvezvikumbiro zvinoiswa munhambo imwe neimwe.

Mitoo Yokududzira Mitemo

Pakuitisa hwirudzuro yedare, ruramisiro inoshandisa mitoo yakasiana-- siyana yedudziro yebumbiro remitemo. Vanzveri vemavambo vanotsvaka kuziva revo yapakuvamba yamashoko yebumbiro-mitemo panguva yokuita kuti zvive zvakashata. Vanzveri vemitemo vanonangidzira ngwariro zvikurukuru parevo yakajeka yorugwaro rumene. Vanyori vemitemo yemitemo yemitemo vanotaura kuti revo yebumbiro remitemo inochinja nokufamba kwenguva kuti varatidzire mipimo yetsika. Nyanzvi dzemitemo dzinorangarira miuyo inoshanda yezvisarudzo.

Zvisarudzo Zvikurusa zveDare Rapamusoro Zvinodzora Kuhwirudzurwa

Munhau yose yeAmerica, Dare Rapamusoro Zvikurusa rakaita hwirudzuro yokutonga mumhaka dzinoverengeka dzechiono idzo dzakaumba mugariro wapamutemo wenyika ndokurondedzera ukuru hwechiremera chehurumende.

Simba Rinokura ReFoderal

Mu McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), Dare rakanzvera kana Congress yakanga ine chiremera chokugadza Bhangi rechipiri reUnited States uye kana Maryland aigona kubhadhara bhangi iroro. Mutongi mukuru John Marshall akadavira kuti nepo Bumbiro reMitemo risingapi nenzira yakajeka simba rokuita bhangi, Chinodikanwa neFanit Classiasces inopa masimba anorehwa kuti aite masimba aro akatemwa. Ichi chisarudzo chakagadza dudziro yakafara yechiremera chehurumende iyo inopfuurira kuisa mutemo mukuru wemitemo yehurumende yazvino uno.

Kurondedzera Simba Rokutengeserana

Mu Gibbons v. Ogden (1824), Dare rakataura kukura kwesimba reCongress pasi peCommunist Claus. Mhaka yacho yaibatanidza marezesi engarava dzenhete yakapiwa neNew York nehurumende yehurumende. Chiviso chikuru Marshall chakatonga kuti simba reCongress rokudzora kutengeserana kwenyika dzose dzinotambanurira mitsetse yehurumende kana kuti dzinotapura nyika imwe. Iyi chisarudzo chakabatira sohwaro hwemitemo mikuru yemubatanidzwa wemari.

Kudzivirira Kodzero Dzomunhu Mumwe Nomumwe

Dare Gurusa rakashandisa hwirudzuro yedare kudzivirira maruramiro avanhu pahurumende inonyengerwa. Mu Brown v. Boka reDzidzo (1954), Dare rakazivisa kusarurana kwedzinza muzvikoro zvavose pasina kuvhota, kuputsa "kuparadzana asi kwakaenzana" dzidziso yakagadzwa mu Prefy v. Ferguson[ (186).) Iyi chisarudzo chakaratidzira simba reDare rokuputsa mutemo unoputsa dziviriro yaClaus yeGenetic Exption of the 1450 Amendment.

Mu Mira v. Arizona (1966), Dare rakaramba kuti Dare reFindromendi rinoda kuchengetwa kwomutemo kuti rizivise utsotsi hunofungira kodzero dzavo vasati vabvunzurudzwa. Iyi chisarudzo yakatanga nyevero zvino yava kunzi Miranda uye yaida kuti ufakazi hunowanwa pasina nyevero dzakafanira hubviswe mukutongwa.

Kuganhurira Chiremera Chechiremera

Dare rakanzverawo simba ravakuru vakuru kupfurikidza nenzvero yedare. Mu Professawwn HETPAR & Tube Co. Sawir (1952), Dare rakaramba mutungamiriri wedare Truman anobata zvigadziko zvesimbi mukati meHondo yeKorea, achirangarira kuti Purezidhendi akanga asina chiremera chebumbiro remitemo chokuita chiito chakadaro pasina mvumo yedare. Mutongi Robert Jackson anoumba murangariro unoumba gadziriro yemativi matatu ebasa rinoyera chiremera chinoramba chiri chirevo.

Nguva pfupi yapfuura zvikuru, HAmdi v. Rumsfeld [2004], Dare rakati vagari vemo veU.S. vakasungwa savarwi vavengi vane maruramiro okudenha kusungwa kwavo pamberi pomuiti wechisarudzo chokusatora rutivi, vachiramba kutaura kwechiremera chehofisi yebazi rinodzora munhau dzechengeteko yenyika.

Kuongorora Kutonga Negadziriro Yemakemikari Nedzikamo

Kuhwirudzura dare kunoshanda mukati memipimo mikuru yechekero nedzikamo izvo zvinoganhurira chiremera chebazu rimwe nerimwe. Kunzwisisa kuti hwirudzuro yedare inobatanidzwa sei nemimwe miitiro yebumbiro remitemo kunopa nzwisiso muchimiro chine simba chehurumende yeAmerica.

Mhinduro Dzedare Kuhwirudzuro Yorutongeso

Apo Dare rapamusoro rinoputsa mutemo wehurumende, Congress inochengeta zvisarudzo zvinoverengeka zvokupindura. Congress inogona kuchinja mutemo kugadzirisa kuperevedza kwebumbiro remitemo, kupfuudza shanduro yakadzokororwa inogutsa zvinetso zveDare. Kana, Congress inogona kukarakadza kugadziridzwa kwebumbiro remitemo kupfuvura kududzira kududziro yeDare, kunyange zvazvo muitiro uyu uchida kutenderwa kwezvikamu zviviri nezvikamu zviviri nemhino nemativi matatu enyika. Congress inogonawo kuganhurira muganhu weDare pasi peChikamu III, Chikamu 2 cheBumbiro reMitemo reMitemo, kunyange zvazvo simba iri rakashandiswa nenzira inotanhanha.

Kushandiswa Kwebazu Rine Vatungamiriri

Bazu guru rine mutoro wokushandisa zvisarudzo zveDare Gurusa, richiparira kusawirirana kunogarwa nakwo apo Dare rinotonga chiito choukuru. Mutungamiriri wehurumende Andrew Jackson sezvinoshumwa akapindura kuchisarudzo cheDare mu Worcester v. Georgia [1832]) kupfurikidza nokuti, "John Marshall akaita chisarudzo chake; zvino ngaachiite kuti chiitwe. Nepo kuzvidza kwakadaro kwazova kusingawanzowaniki, vakuru vakuru vakuru vanochengeta chisarudzo mukuita dare, zvikurukuru apo zvisarudzo zvinosiya kamuri rokududzira.

Zvinetso Zvehurumende

Hurumende dzakadzivisa panhambo nenhambo kutonga kweDare Gurusa, zvikurukuru munharaunda dzegakava renhau rakadai serusarurano nomunyengetero wechikoro. Dare rinotsamira pachiremera charo chapamutemo chavose kuvimbisa kuteererwa, sezvo risingashandisi mibato yakananga. Bazu rapamusoro rinogovera tsigiro yokupfuurira apo kudzivisa kwehurumende kunopfuurira, sezvinoratidzirwa apo Purezidhendi Eisenhower akatumira mauto ehurumende kuti amanikidze chikoro muLittle Rock, Arkansas muna 1957.

Gakava Rakapoteredza Kuhwirudzurwa Kwokutonga

Pasinei zvapo nebasa rayo rakasimbiswa mukudzora kweAmerica, kuhwirudzura kwokutonga kunopfuurira kuparira gakava rinokosha pakati penyanzvi dzemitemo, vezvamatongerwe enyika, uye vanhu vose.

Kutonga Kunorwisana Neganhuriro Dzokutonga

Gakava pakati pechiito chokutonga neganhuriro zvokutonga rinonanga pamashandisire anoita matare simba rawo nokushingaira.Vatsoropodzi vezviito zvokutonga vanotaura kuti matare anofanira kuzviisa pasi pezvisarudzo zvemitemo kutoti mutemo uchiputsa zvakajeka rugwaro rwebumbiro remitemo. Vanoomerera kuti vatongi vasina kusarudzwa havafaniri kutsiva zvisarudzo zvavo zvemitemo nokuda kwaavo vamiriri vakasarudzwa nehurumende. Vatsigiri vokudzivisa kudzora kwedare vanoramba kuti matare anofanira kusarudza mhaka pazvikonzero zvitete ndokudzivisa kutaura kusiri madikanwa kwebumbiro remitemo.

Vatsigiri vezviito zvokutonga vanopindura kuti matare anofanira kudzivirira kodzero dzevanhu nezvinofarirwa nevoruzhinji, zvikurukuru apo miitiro yezvamatongerwe enyika inokundikana kukurukura kuputsa mutemo. Vanonongedzera kuzvisarudzo zvakaita se Brown v. Board of Education[ uye bergefell v. Hodges [20]], izvo zvakawedzera kodzero dzinokosha kumapoka akacherwa, semienzaniso umo kupindira kwedare kwakanga kuri madikanwa kuwana ruramisiro yebumbiro remitemo.

Kunetseka Nemitemo Yehurumende Inotonga Vanhu

Alexander Bickel, mubasa rake rinopesvedzera Bazu reChapamasero rine Ngozi, rakazivisa icho akadana kuti "chinetso chamatongerwe enyika" chehwirudzuro yokutonga: kusawirirana pakati pehwirudzuro yedare nenheyo dzedemokrase. Apo vatongi vasina kusarudzwa vanopfuudzwa mitemo isina simba navamiriri vakasarudzwa, vanoratidzika kuva vanokunda vazhinji vachada. Vatsoropotedza ikoku kunozvidza kuzvidavirira kwedemocracy, sezvo vanhu vasingagoni kuvhotera ruramisiro yebasa ravo nokuda kwezvisarudzo zvavo.

Vadziviriri vehwirudzuro yedare vanopindura kuti Bumbiro reMitemo igwaro rinotsiva rakagadzirirwa kudzivirira maruramiro makuru padzvinyiriro zhinji. Vanopikisa kuti chinjo inopa gadziriro yedemocracy yokuputsa tsananguro dzebumbiro remitemo dzisina kururama uye kuti muitiro wokugadza unopa pesvedzero yavanhu isina kunanga pamusoro pechinyorwa chedare rejaji.

Mibvunzo Yezvamatongerwe Enyika Nokururama

Dzidziso yenhau yezvamatongerwe enyika inoganhurira kuhwirudzurwa kwedare mune dzimwe nharaunda idzo matare anorangarira kuva dzakapedzwa nenzira yakafanira zvikuru namapazu ezvamatongerwe enyika. Dare Rapamusorosoro rakaramba kunzwa nhau dzinobatanidza denho kumitoo yokusabvumirana, mibvunzo pamusoro pomufambiro wemitemo yokumwe, uye gakava pamusoro peRepublican Form of Government Clause.

Mirangariro Yokuenzanisa Pahwirudzuro Yorutongeso

Kunzvera iyi misiyano kunogovera mashoko akapoteredza anobetsera kuti tinzwisise muenzaniso weAmerica hakusi kwechienzi, kunyange zvazvo kwakasiana zvikuru nemitoo inotorwa mune dzimwe nyika.

Muenzaniso Wemagamba WeParamende yeBritain

Zvisinei, matare ekodzero dzevanhu eBritain anopa chiremera chakaganhurirwa chokuzivisa mutemo usingawirirani neEuropean Convention on Human Rights, kunyange zvazvo zviziviso zvakadaro zvisingarevi kuti mutemo wakaipa. Brexit yakaita kuti pave nemibvunzo yezvemitemo pamusoro pekuongorora kwedare muUK.

Matare Ebumbiro Remitemo Mumiitiro Yomutemo Wavagari Vemo

Nyika dzakawanda dzeEurope dzakatanga matare epamutemo akajeka akasiyana negadziriro dzawo dzenguva dzose dzokutonga.

Chati yeCanada Yekodzero Nerusununguko

Canada yakagamuchira kusvika kwechimbichimbi nechakaipa nechayo cheChibvumirano chekodzero neRwegano muna 1982. Matare eCanada anogona kuputsa mitemo inoputsa Charter, asi Chikamu 33, chinozivikanwa se "nongeri yeChibvumirano," inobvumira Paramende kana kuti matare okugadza pamutemo kukurira dzimwe kodzero dzeChibvumirano nokuda kwenhambo dzemakore mashanu dzinomutsidzirwa. Gadziriro iyi inochengeta basa rakasimba zvikuru nokuda kwechisarudzo chemitemo ichiri kugovera dziviriro yedare nokuda kwamaruramiro makuru.

Zvinetso Zvazvino Uno Nezviitiko

Panyaya dzokutonga, nyaya dzinotaurwa nedare dzinoramba dzichichinja sezvo mibvunzo mitsva inovapo uye kuumbwa kweDare Repamusorosoro kuchiita kuti zvionekwe kuti zvingabatsira sei kana dare rikaongorora.

Kusimbiswa Nechibvumikiso cheDare

Muitiro wokusimbisa vatongi veDare guru wazova wokuzvitutumadza nenzira inowedzera mumakumi amakore achangobva kupfuura aya, nevanotarisana nokunzverwa kukuru kwouzivi hwavo hwokutonga uye mitoo yokuvhota. Kuramba kwa2016 kurangarira kunyorwa kwaMerrick Garland nokusimbiswa kwokukurumidza kweMutongi Amy Coney Barrett muna 2020 kwakasimbisa kusagadzikana kwevara mumativi eDare. Izvi zvakamutsa mibvunzo pamusoro pezvingafungwa kuti ndezvepamutemo uye kana kugadziridzwa kwezvivako kungava kwakafanira.

Kukwirira Kwekurumidziro Nedhisiki

Mumakore achangobva kupfuura aya, Dare Gurusa rakashandisa nenzira inowedzera "shoo yedare revhu" kusarudza zvikumbiro nokukumbira pasina kupfupikisa kwakakwana uye kutaura. Vatsoropodzi vanopikisa uyu muitiro unobvumira Dare kupa chisarudzo chinokosha pasina kurangarira nokujeka izvo zvinowanzowirirana nechisarudzo. Kushandiswa kweshongwe yemifungo yenhau yenhau huru, zvikurukuru mumhaka dzinobatanidza mitemo yesarudzo neganhuriro dzakakomba, zvakaparira kurukurirano itsva pamusoro poukoshipi noukoshi hwakafanira hwekuhwirudzura.

Kushandiswa Kwavanhu uye Kupiwa Kwomutemo Kwamasangano

Kutenderwa kwapamutemo kweDare Gurusa kunotsamira murutivi chivimbo chavanhu mukusasarura kwavo nemiitiro yokuita zvisarudzo. Kunzvera kwemisi ichangobva kupfuura iyi kunokarakadza kuderera chivimbo chavanhu muDare, nemapoka anopesana mumapoka anotenderwa achiva anozivikanwa zvikuru. Kuva pamutemo kweDare kunokosha nokuda kwokushandiswa kunobudirira kwenzvero yokutonga, sezvo Dare risina simba rokuchengeta uye rinotsamira pakuteerera kwokuzvidira nezvisarudzo zvaro. Kuchengeta kuva pamutemo kwesangano nepo richiita chisarudzo chemibvunzo yebumbiro remitemo inopesana kunopa denho inopfuurira.

Nguva Yemberi Yokuhwirudzura

Nzvimbo dzinoverengeka dziri kubuda dzomutemo dzingaedza miganhu yokuongorora matare mumakumi emakore anotevera.

Kushandiswa kweGedzimende Rechina Kudzivirira mashoko ezvinonyorwa pachishandiswa makombiyuta, kodzero dzokutaura panzvimbo dzinobudisa nhau, uye mutemo wemapurogiramu okuongorora ehurumende zvose zvinomutsa nhau dzinoda kunyatsoongororwa kwebumbiro remitemo.

Gadziriro yemhoteredzo nechinjo yemamiriro okunze zvinomirira imwe nharaunda umo hwirudzuro yedare ingaita rutivi runokura. Matare anokumbirwa nenzira inowedzera kusarudza kuva kwebumbiro remitemo remitemo remitemo ine chokuita nemamiriro okunze, kuyera kutaura kwokuti hurumende isingasaiti inoputsa kodzero dzebumbiro remitemo, uye gakava remhesano pamusoro penzvimbo yehurumende. Izvi zvinoitika zvinoedza ganhuriro dzedzidziso dzegamuchidzanwa dzebumbiro remitemo uye zvingaparira miganhu mitsva inokosha.

Mutemo wechisarudzo nekodzero dzokuvhota zvinopfuurira kubudisa mvumo yebumbiro remitemo, zvikurukuru kutevera chisarudzo cheDare Rapamusorosoro mu Shelby County v. Homer (202013), iyo yakabvisa gadziriro huru dzeVoting Rights Act. Mibvunzo pamusoro pemitemo inovhota, uye mirauriro yemari inoramba ichishanda mukuhwirudzura kwedare, nerevo dzinokosha nokuda kwehurumende yedemocracy.

Nguva yemberi yehwirudzuro yedare ichatsamirawo pakuti Dare Rapamusoro Zvikurusa rinopindura sei mibvunzo pamusoro pebasa raro rimene nechiremera.

Kuhwirudzura rutongeso kunoramba kuri chinhu chinokosha chehurumende yeAmerica, kuchibatira senzvero inokosha pasimba rehurumende uye mutoo wokudzivirira nawo maruramiro omunhu oga. Nepo gakava pamusoro poukuru hwaro nokuva pamutemo rinopfuurira, nheyo inokosha yokuti matare anogona kuyera mitemo nezviito zvinopesana nezvinodikanwa zvebumbiro remitemo zvave zvichitsungirira kwaanopfuura mazana maviri amakore. Sezvo denho itsva dzinooneka, kushandiswa kwokungwarira kwehwirudzuro yokutonga kucharamba kuchikosha kumurairo unova nehurumende yeAmerica.