Mavambo Apakuvamba Akarongwa Nemhindumupindu Yedzidziso Yokutanga

Kutanga souzivi hunowirirana hwokutonga kwakawana mukurumbira mukupera kwezana ramakore rechimakumi maviri semhinduro kune izvo vatsigiri vayo vairangarira sechiito chokutonga. Dzidziso yacho inoti rugwaro rwebumbiro remitemo runofanira kuturikirwa mukuwirirana nerevo yavose yarakanga rine apo rakatenderwa. Mutongi Antonin Scalia, inzwi rakatanhamara nokuda kweiyi nzira, akataura kuti urongwa hwapakuvamba hunodzivisa vatongi kuisa ganhuriro yemitemo yomunhu oga uye hunochengeta kuva pamutemo kwoubatiso kupfurikidza nokuomerera kumugariro wavanhu kupfurikidza negadziriro yehwaro.

Mutoo wemavambo unopesana ne "Bumbiro remitemo mhenyu" mutoo, unoramba kuti revo yebumbiro remitemo inoshanduka nechinjo yenzanga. Vanyori vemavambo vanoomerera kuti kuchinja — kwete kutsanangurazve kwedare — ndiwo mutoo wakafanira wokuchinjira Bumbiro remitemo kumigariro mitsva. Uku kukamukana kwouzivi kunoguma zvikurukuru apo matare eMitemo anotarisana nenharaunda dzomutemo umo Mitemo yakanyarara kana kuti apo nzwisiso yapakuvamba inoratidzira mipimo inorwisana nemirangariro yazvino uno yeruramisiro.

Kodzero dzevagari vemo dzinomirira imwe yenzvimbo dzinodenha zvikurusa dzerondedzero yemavambo. Bumbiro reMitemo rinodudza maIndian maMelika bedzi mumifungo yakaganhurirwa: Communist Claus anopa simba reChorce kuti ridzore kutengeserana "Nendudzi dzeIndia," uye kugoverwa kweGaramende re14 kweMitemo inobvisa "Vanamutsi vasina kubhadharwa mutero." Aya nongedzero akasiana-- siyana anosiya mibvunzo mirevo huru pamusoro pouchangamire, maruramiro echibvumirano, nyika, uye ukuru hwesimba rehurumende pamusoro pemarudzi eIforeland.

Kuumbwa Kwebumbiro Remitemo Rouchangamire Hworudzi

Kare Bumbiro reMitemo risati ranyoreswa, vagari vomuEurope vakaziva kuti maruwa enyika dzinozvimirira samarudzi anotonga anokwanisa kupinda muzvibvumirano. Uku kuzivikanwa kwakapfuurira mukutonga kweBritain uye kwakagara nhaka neUnited States pashure pokuzvimirira. Treaty yeBumbiro reMitemo Claus, iyo inobvumira Purezidhendi kuita zvibvumirano nezano uye kubvumira kweDare, inobvuma chose chose kuti ndudzi dzeIndia dzine nzvimbo yemarudzi okumwe nokuda kwamadonzo okuita bvumirano.

Dare rapamberi penhau reDare rapanyika rakagadzwa rakatanga icho nyanzvi dzazvino uno dzinodana kuti "Marcshall Trilogy" — mhaka nhatu dzehwaro dzakasarudzwa naMambo John Marshall pakati pa 1823 na 1832 idzo dzinopfuurira kuumba mutemo wenyika yeIndia wenyika. Mu Johnson] v. McInsh, Marshall akarondedzera "dzidziso yezvakavanzika," akabata kuti kuwanikwa kweEurope kwakabvisa kuva muridzi ndokukutsiva nekodzero yokugara munyika inodzorwa nomutemo. [[FLT][FL:]][FLT]] Cooke Vagari va Georgia v.[FLT] Georgia [FLT: 3] yakarondedzera ndudzi dzinowirirana neyatina nzanga yeUnited States "Madomerome" wiromeokeri yeyakerindirome yeyakeri yeRoma] [F] [F]]

Zvisarudzo izvi zvakatanga gadziriro inoramba ichipesvedzera zvikuru asi yakapikisawo zvikuru. Nzvero yeChorry yeMarshall Trilogy inozivisa kuti Marshall amene akawana padzidziso dzehurumende yeEurope panzvimbo porugwaro rwakatsiga rwebumbiro remitemo remitemo remitemo — idi rinoomesa nhau ipi neipi yapakuvamba yemutemo weIndia wehurumende. Dzidziso yakawanikwa, zvikurukuru, yakatsoropodzwa zvikuru sengano yourudzi iyo yakabatira kururamisa kudzingwa kwehurumende.

Kurerekera Mumuitiro — Zviitiko Zvikurusa zveDare Rapamusoro Zvikurusa

Treaty Rights Doctrine

United States yakapinda mumazana ezvibvumirano namarudzi emo pakati pa 1778 na 1871, apo Congress yakagumisa kuita chibvumirano. izvi zvibvumirano zvakachengeta kuvhima, kuredza, kuunganidza, uye kugara mukodzero idzo marudzi anoramba achiwedzera nhasi. Kududzira mutauro webvumirano kwepakuvamba kwakabudisa miuyo inopesana zvikuru inotsamira padare nechinyorwa chenhau zviri munhau.

Mu United States v. Winans, Dare Gurusa rakatanga mutemo wokuti zvibvumirano zvinofanira kurangarirwa sezvibvumirano zveIndival zvingadai zvakazvinzwisisa — rusarudzo rwokuvaka urwo nenzira inowirirana nenheyo dzapakuvamba kupfurikidza nokuisa pachena nzwisiso yamativi ose ari maviri panguva yebvumirano. Iyi dare rave riri repakati pekukunda kwamarudzi kwakawanda, kubatanidza mhaka dzinosimbisa maruramiro okuredza hove muPacific Northwest neGreat Lakes.

Vatsoropodzi vedzidziso yapakuvamba vanoonesa, zvisinei, kuti matare anoshandisa nenzira inosarudzwa mitoo yemavambo kunhau dzekodzero dzemo. Apo chinyorwa chenhau chinopikira kusanzwisisana kana kuti apo chibvumirano chinopikira rwisano nemitemo yehurumende inotevera, matare anowanzobvuma chiito chedare rapashure panzvimbo penzwisiso yapakuvamba. Chisarudzo cheDare Gurusa reDare guru mu United States v. Jicarilla Apache Nation inoratidzira uku kuoma kwemifungo: Dare raidzosaidzosa mabasa omutemo wehurumende kumarudzi anowirirana kwapamhotera kupfurikidza namazana amakore ebvumirano uye mutemo wemitemo, achidudza "nzwisiso yapakuvamba" youkama hwechivi.

Hotccock Nedzidziso Yesimba Rinopfura

Zvichida hapana nhau inoratidzira kusawirirana pakati pedzidziso yapakuvamba namaruramiro orudzi zvikuru kupfuura Lolf v. Hitchcock. Imomo, Dare Gurusa raidavira kuti Congress ine "simba renguva dzose" pamusoro penhau dzeIndia — simba guru kwazvo zvokuti raigona kutongogona kuvhura zvibvumirano zvedzinza pasina kubvumira kwedzinza uye pasina muripo. Mhaka yaibatanidza Medicine Lond Constitution of 1867, iyo yakavimbisa kuti hakuna imwe nyika yezvibvumirano yaizoitwa pasina tendero yemitezo mitatu yavakuru vendudzi. Dare rakapfuudza mutemo waigona kudzokororwa nyika dzose dzamarudzi uye kuvhura yanda kusingabhadharwi.

Nzvero yapakuvamba ye Wolf inoratidzira. Hapana chinhu murugwaro rwebumbiro remitemo chinopa Hurumende chiremera chisina muganhu pazvinhu zvedzinza. Treaty Claus inoda kubvumira zvakajeka nokuda kwechinjo kubvumirano. Bva Dare rakavaka dzidziso yesimba replenary iyo yakaputsa nenzira inobudirira kodzero dzechibvumirano idzo Constitution yakanga yaziva. Iyi muuyo, nyanzvi zhinji dzinotaura, dzinoratidzira kuti chibvumirano chapakuvamba hachisi vimbiso yemiuyo inodzivirira nokuda kwavanhu veIvalisation — inogona kungosimbisa nenzira iri nyore nyore zvivako zvesimba renyika inosimbiswa mugadziriro yapakuvamba yebumbiro remitemo.

McGirt v. Oklahoma uye Revo Yokutanga YeTendeso

Chisarudzo 2020 mu McGirt v. Oklahoma inomirira kushanda kwepfungwa yepakutanga muInditional reconsvect. Nhau yakabvunza kana muganhu worudzi wakanga wabviswa nomutemo wehurumende wakatevera. Mutongi Gormoth akashandisa mutoo wapakuvamba wapakuvamba, achinzvera rugwaro rwechibvumirano chakasimbisa chitsama nemiraudzo izvo zvakachideredza nenzira yakajeka. Kuwana kusavapo kwomutauro wakajeka. Dare rairangarira kuti chiteshi chakarambira nokuda kwamadonzo outsotsi pasi peMarime Crime.

Chisarudzo chacho chasimbiswazve kuti zvipikirwa zvinofanira kukudzwa maererano nerevo yazvo yapakuvamba — nheyo inowirirana zvikuru nezvibvumirano zvepakuvamba. Murangariro waGorfonsos wakasimbisa kuti "Hurumende yehurumende yakapikira rudzi rweCreek rusingachinjiki" uye kuti "Hakuna rugwaro kana kuti mashoko akapoteredza emirau inoenzanisira zvakajeka kuputsa chipikirwa ichocho."

Bva MCGirt yakaparirawo kutsoropodza kukuru kubva kunyanzvi dzemavambo idzo dzinopanikira kana muuyo wechisarudzo uri unowirirana nenzwisiso yapakuvamba yesimba rehurumende pamusoro penhau dzeIndia. Vamwe vanotaura kuti dzidziso yesimba renyika inobvumwa mu Lone Wolf inofanira kuva yakadzora muuyo, kubvumidza kuwanwa kwekushaikwa kwechaunga. Nokudaro chinoitika chinoratidzira kuti mavambo, kufanana nomutoo upi noupi wokududzira, haapinduri nenzira yakarongwa — kunoda vatongi kuita zvisarudzo pamusoro pezvipi zvamanyuko apakuvamba kuropafadzo uye nzira yokuwiriranisa nayo.

Kuganhurirwa Kwekodzero Dzevanhu Vakaberekerwa Munzvimbo Yacho

Kushandiswa kwekodzero dzemo dzokutanga kunomutsa zvinetso zvinoverengeka zvikuru. Chokutanga, gadziriro yebumbiro remitemo yapakuvamba yakabata vanhu vokuMarudzi sevokunze kwegadziriro yebumbiro remitemo — vasingadiwi kuva vagari vemo, vasingaverengerwi nokuda kwezvinangwa, uye pasi pechiremera chehurumende chakanga chisingadzorwi zvikurukuru nekodzero dzomunhu oga. Mutoo wokududzira nawo maropafadzo iwayo okuisa mungozi mamiriro ezvinhu apakuvamba kukuvadziko dzimene nedzinowirirana neBumbiro reMitemo.

Chechipiri, dzidziso dzapakuvamba dzinosangana nechinetso apo chinyorwa chenhau chinozivisa zvakawanda, zvinotsiva zvapakuvamba. Vagadziri veBumbiro reMitemo vaiva nemirangariro yakasiana pamusoro pouchangamire hwevagari vemo, misengwa yebvumirano, uye miganhu yesimba rehurumende. kurukurirano dzeRetation hadzina bvumirano yakajeka paiyi mibvunzo. Naizvozvo vanodavira pakuvamba vanofanira kusarudza pakati pamanyuko enhau munzira idzo nenzira dzisingadzivisiki dzinoratidzira misengwa inopfuura revo yapakuvamba imene.

Chechitatu, simbiso yemavambo parevo yakatsiga yamashoko inosavapo nenzira ine simba yeukama hwehurumende netsika. Mutoro, somuenzaniso, wakashanduka kupfurikidza namazana amakore okuita bvumirano, mutemo wemitemo, uye zvisarudzo zvokutonga kuva mubatanidzwa wemisengwa yezvisingasarudzwi izvo pasina nguva yenhau imwe inobata zvizere. Kusvika kwapakuvamba kunodzikamisa ukama ihwohwu panguva yakati munguva yakati kungakundikana kutsanangura kukura kunopfuurira kwemipimo yapamutemo iyo inokosha kuuchangamire hwedzinza.

Chikamu cheIndian Commerce Claus chinogovera muenzaniso unobatsira. Dzimwe nyanzvi dzepakutanga dzinotaura kuti mashoko acho anopa Congress chiremera chakaganhurirwa bedzi pazvokutengeserana nendudzi — chiremera chisingazosanganisi kutungamirira kwakafara uye kuvimba mitoro iyo hurumende iri kuita.

Nokuda kwokunzverwa kukuru kweidzi kurukurirano dzehuru, Office of Treaty Justice inogovera zviwanikwa pasviko zveDhipatimendi reRuramisiti reMubatanidzwa weIndiya. Native American Rights Fund inochengetawo rondedzero huru yenhau nemhino yetsananguro yetsika namashoko echitsauko chapakuvamba mududziro yedzinza reIndiya.

Mabhuku Anoita Kuti Zviite Kunzwisisa

Mitoo inoverengeka yokududzira yave ichikarakadzwa kupedza ganhuriro dzetsika dzapakuvamba mumashoko akapoteredza eIndal. Maitirwe "bumbiro remitemo rinoyera", ayo anosimbisa kubvisa mipimo yenzanga nemigariro inochinja, akashandiswa namatare kuti atende utongi hwedzinza munharaunda umo gadziriro yemitemo yapakuvamba isina dziviriro yakajeka. Vatsigiri veiyi nzira vanotsinhirana nemitemo vanofanira kuparira kusaruramisira kwapakuvamba kwegadziriro yapamutemo yavanhu veIvoligine.

Kuumbwa kwemitemo yakatevedzana kunobatanidza kuremekedza misengwa yezvibvumirano uye kuzivikanwa kwouchangamire hwedzinza — semitemo inoumbwa nemitemo inoumbwa nemitemo panzvimbo perevo yakagadzwa yorugwaro. Iyi nzira yave ichipesvedzera muzviitiko zvinobatanidza ukama hwokuvimbana uye udzori hwedzinza.

"Chitendero chapakuvamba chinotsoropodza" chinotsvaka kuwanazve revo dzapakuvamba dzakadzvinyirirwa kana kuti dzakaderedzwa munhauro huru yebumbiro remitemo. Dzimwe nyanzvi dzakataura kuti revo yapakuvamba yeBumbiro remitemo, inonzwisiswa zvakafanira, inobvuma uchangamire hwedzinza hwakasimba uye inoisa misengwa inomanikidzirwa pahurumende yehurumende yehurumende kudzivirira nyika dzamarudzi nehurumende. Iyi rondedzero yokuhwirudzura inodenha fungidziro yokuti umwari hwapakuvamba hunofanira kutungamirira kumigumisiro yokuti mamiriro ezvinhu avanhu.

Nokuda kwokubatwa kwounyanzvi kwaaya kurukurirano dzinodudzira, Ungano yeChicago Coase-Sandor Institute yeLaw and Economic yakabudisa mapepa anoshanda achinzvera mavambo nemutemo weIndia. Kuwedzera, Federal Register Bureaument of Indian Affairs inogovera mashoko akapoteredza akarongwa kuti anzwisise kuti gadziriro dzinotsanangura dzinotapura sei muitiro.

Nharo Dzapamberi Pacho Nenharo Dzemitemo

Gakava redzidziso yapakuvamba rine miuyo yakananga nokuda kwekodzero dzechiIndia yomunyika ino negadziriro yehurumende. Kunyorwa kwazvino uno kweDare Gurusa kunobatanidza vatongi vanoverengeka vakaratidzira kuzvipira kumiitiro yemavambo, kubatanidza Justice Gormoth, Kavangagh, Barrett, naThomas. Kusvika kweDare kumutemo wehurumende weIndia kuchasarudza miuyo muzvinoitika zvinobatanidza chinzwano chedzinza, garikano yavana pasi peIndian Child Welfarelvel Act, kuvhima nekodzero dzokuredza, uye ukoshi hwechidzivisiro chapamutemo chedzinza kubva pasututi.

Bracken v. Haaland idigitation, iyo yakadenha kunyorwa kwebumbiro remitemo reICWA, yakaratidzira njodzi dzedudziro yemavambo. Platiffs yakataura kuti ICWA yaipfuura chiremera cheDare reChesters muIndian Commerce Clause uye yakaputsa nheyo dzedziviriro dzakaenzana — zvibvumikiso zvakavakirwa mukuverengwa kwakaganhurirwa kwere rebumbiro remitemo. Dare Guru rakatsigira ICWA muchisarudzo chapakuvamba nerongedzero, asi mhaka yacho yakaratidzira zvikamu zvikuru pakati pemitemo yehurumende yeIndia yapakuvamba pamusoro pokuti shandisirei kumutemo womubatanidzwa.

Nguva yemberi yetsika dzapakuvamba munhau dzekodzero dzavagari vemo sezvingabvira ichatsamira pakuti matare anogadzikisa sei kusawirirana pakati perevo yapakuvamba yebumbiro remitemo nemutumbi wemuenzaniso wakatanga kwamazana maviri amakore. Dzimwe nyanzvi dzinotaura kuti Dare Rapamusorosoro rinofanira kugamuchira "chibvumirano chokuvaka chibvumirano" icho chinoda bvumirano yakajeka yedonzo rebvumirano yebvumirano yeBrottle — nheyo inowirirana nemisengwa yechechi yapakuvamba kukujeka nokuremekedza nzwisiso yapakuvamba yamativi ose ari maviri okunyorerana bvumirano. Vamwe vanotaura kuti Chechi yeChitendero chinofanira kuraira matare kuti revo yapakuvamba yeChil yachinjwa zvikurukuru nerevo yeChibvumirano chehondo cheBriv.

mhedziso

Chitendero chapakuvamba chinoramba chiri chirongwa chinokosha asi chakatsikirira zvikuru chokududzira kodzero dzebumbiro remitemo yavanhu vemo. Kushandiswa kwacho kumutemo weIndiya wehurumende kuzivisa zvose zviri zviviri simba rorugwaro — chirango chenhau, kuoma kwenhau, kuremekedza rerevo yakatsiga — uye ganhuriro dzacho, zvikurukuru apo murayiro webumbiro remitemo wapakuvamba unowirirana uye kuva pasi. Zviitiko zvinonzverwa pano zvinoratidza kuti kudavira pakuvamba hakuiti migumisiro yakafanorongwa mukodzero dzavanhu. Inogona kutsigira uchangamire hwedzinza apo zvibvumirano zvinokudzwa mukuwirirana nerevo yazvo yapakuvamba, asi zvinogonawo kusimbisa zvivako zvesimba rehurumende yehurumende yapakuvamba zvinoraviwa kubvumira kudzora mubatanidzwa.

Gakava riri kupfuurira pamusoro pekuziva pakuvamba nekodzero dzevagari vemo pakupedzisira rinoratidzira mibvunzo huru pamusoro penzira iyo gadziriro yemitemo yeAmerica inofanira kurangarira nayo kusaruramisira kwehwaro kwakaumba nhevedzano yebumbiro remitemo. Kana kuvamba kuchigona kushanda senzira yokuziva nayo nokudzivirira uchangamire hweIndaneti — kana kuti kucharamba kuchishanda sechimanikiso pakuziva kwakadaro — kunotsamira pachisarudzo chokududzira icho matare anoita mumakore ari mberi. Chiri pachena ndechokuti kuvamba kwechiShona namaruramiro okutanga zvicharamba zviri pamutemo, nerevo huru nokuda kwamarudzi, muitiro weIndia wemubatanidzwa wehurumende, uye revo yeruramisiro mugamuchidzanwa remitemo yeAmerica.