Mitemo Inochinja - chinja yaChangamire weHurumende Mumutemo Wehurumende

Hurumende inodzivirira mamiriro ezvinhu ehurumende inomira seimwe yenheyo dzinogara uye dzinopikisana nemitemo yemitemo yeAmerica. Dzidziso yacho, iyo inodzivirira pakukwidziridzwa kuiswa mudare pasina kubvumirana kwavo, inoronda mavambo ayo kumutemo weEngland wavose uye pfungwa yedare yokuti mambo haagoni kuita zvakaipa. Mugadziriro yehurumende yeAmerica, kuzvidzivirira kwapamutemo kwakagadzirirwa kudzivirira chiremera nedzikamo yenyika, kudzivirira mapoka ehurumende kuti asakwidziridza nyika mudare. Asi kudzivirira uku hakuna kumbova kwakakwana. Kubva pamazuva apakuvambasaitangira eRepublic Republic, mutemo wehurumende wabvisa padzidziso, unoita kuti pave, kupesana, kudzorwa kwezviito, uye kuzvidavirira izvo zvakadzosa ukama pakati penyika navanhu vanodzora. Kunzwisisa kuti mamiriro ezvinhu ehurumende nehurumende anotonga anoshanda nokuda kwevamiririridzi, vamiriri vehurumende, vamiriri vebasa vadzori vebasa.

Uku kuenzana kwakaedzwa kwaiedzwazve kupfurikidza nemitemo uye chiremera chehurumende kwave kuchingova muganhu wehurumende. Nhasi, dzidziso haisati iri nhoo yakakwana yehurumende kana kuti nhambo yakareruka. Iko kuumbwa kwapamutemo kunoumbwa nechiito chemitemo, kutsanangurwa kwedare, uye kudzivirirwa kwavanhu kwakawanda kwave kuri mamiriro ezvinhu.

Kubatana kweChangamire Wemitemo

Pesvedzero yegumi negumi nerechitanhatu kuBumbiro reMitemo reU.S. ndiyo inodzivirira kudzivirirwa kwehurumende mudare rehurumende. Yakasimbiswa muna 1795, Hurumende inopa: "Simba roRuramisiro reUnited States harisati richizorangarirwa kutambanudzira kutsika ipi neipi mumutemo kana kuti kusatenderwa, yakatanga kana kuti yakatongwa muUnited States neVagaritizeri veimwe Nyika, kana kuti neVagari vemo veNyika dzeNyika ipi neipi." Pachiso charo, Kugadziridzwa kwacho kunoratidzika kuva kunodzivisa bedzi kudzorwa kwemitemo inopesana nevagari vemo vedzimwe nyika kana kuti marudzi. Asi Dare Rapamusoro rakarava Kuchinja kwakafara zvikuru, richiitsanangura sechibvumidzoro chapamutemo chehurumende inotonga nyika dzavo dzinorwisana navagari vemo vogarowo.

Iyi dudziro huru yakasimbiswa mumhaka yechiratidzo che Hans v. Louisiana (1890), umo Dare rairangarira kuti mugari wemo aisagona kukwirira hurumende yake amene mudare rehurumende mupedze dare rehurumende. Kurangarira kwakanga kuri kwokuti Dare rePremendement rePrefective rakanga risati riri manyuko echidzitiro chehurumende asi kudzorerwa kwapashomanene kwedziviriro yakatemwa neBumbiro remitemo. Kubvira Hans , Dare rasimbisa rasimbisa rasimbisazve kuti kudzivirirwa kwapamutemo rutivi runokosha rwehurumende kuti Dare ringangogona kudzorwa bedzi mumigariro yakaganhurirwa.

Dzidziso yacho inoshanda kwete bedzi kusuturo nokuda kwekuvadziko yemari asiwo kugadziridza nyaradzo yapamutemo yeyamuro apo hurumende inopiwa zita remukwiridziri. Zvisinei, inosanozivikanwa Ex parate Young [ [08] [08] dzidziso inobvumira sututi dzinorwisana navakuru vakuru vehurumende mumifungo yavo yapamutemo nokuda kweyamuro inokarirwa kupedza kuputswa kunopfuurira kwomutemo wehurumende. Uku kupesana kwakabvumikisa kuva kunotsoropodza nokuda kwokushandisa mitemo yehurumende inorwisana navatambi vehurumende pasina kushandisa fomu reAmphendertic Amenute denderment.

Simba reCongress Kuchibvumirano chaChangamire Wehurumende

Mubvunzo mukuru mumhoteredzo yazvino uno inodzivisa dziviriro yavanhu ndowetambanuko iyo Congress inogona kubvisa nayo nyika dzinodzivisa dziviriro kupfurikidza nomutemo wehurumende. Dare Gurusa rakatanga nhindi mbiri dzokusarudza kana mutemo wehurumende uchishanda nenzira inoshanda kuva dziviriro yehurumende. Chokutanga, Congress inofanira kuratidzira chose chose chose vavariro yayo kukuva neguva. Chechipiri, Congress inofanira kuita chiito chokushandisa simba rayo rebumbiro remitemo.

Chinodikanwa chemashoko akajeka chinoreva kuti Congress haigoni kudzivirira dziviriro yamasimba ose kupfurikidza nomutauro wemitemo usinganzwisisiki. Dare rinoraira kutaura kwakajeka kwedonzo redare, zvikurukuru murugwaro rwomutemo umene. Zvibvumikiso zvavose zvokukwidza kana kuti nongedzero ku "munhu upi noupi" kana kuti "munhu upi noupi wemari yehurumende" akarangarirwa kuva asina kukwana kuzivisa kuti vangaiswa pafaniro.

Dare rakati Congress ingava inoparadza hurumende kana ichiita chiito kuti ipedze chikamu 5 che14th Amendment Amendment, chinobvumira kuti Hurumende ipedze mutemo wemitemo unoita kuti ipedze kuputsa mutemo.

Uyu musiano wakatorwa zvikuru mu [[FLT: 0] , Dare rakati Courts Hangel yeFlorida v. Florida [1996], nhau yakagadziridzazve mutemo wokuzvidzora. Saminole Tribe, Congress yaidavira kuti Congress haingagoni kushandisa Chikamu chayo I Indian Communic Clause kusimba rehurumende muChiteshingamira pamutemo muIndiya Gaming Regatary Act. Chisarudzo chakatonga mhaka yapakuvamba yakanga yabvumira kukwezvurwa pasi peChikamu I uye yakagadzwa mutemo: Chikamu 5 bedzi cheGemendel chinogovera nzvimbo yapamutemo kubvisa nyika dzadzoro dzehurumende. Chikamu chitsatati chamato chehurumende chikashatsati chadzo muChikamu chavanhu chavanhu. Chikamu chinoshandiswa kutongeteshi chamato, kubatanidza chiTredhio kuMas Crismato, Chisina kuBrismato, uye Chikamu cha

Mitemo Yehurumende Inoparira Kusanangurika

Pasinei zvapo neganhuriro dzakaiswa ne Svorel Tribum, Congress yakaita rudungwe rwemirau yehurumende kuti zvimwe kudzivirira dziviriro yapamutemo kwechigadziko muChikamu 5 che 144th Amendment kana kuti mamiriro ezvinhu ehurumende anogamuchirwa nemari yehurumende pamuridzi wesimba rokudzivisa kubatwa nehosha. Iyi mirau inoita nzira dzinokosha dzokuita kuti nyika dzizvidavirire mudare rehurumende.

Mitemo Yekodzero Dzevagari Vemo

Tsigiro dzinorerutswa zvikuru dzehurumende dzinodzivisa maruramiro ekodzero dzavagari vemo dzinomuka mumitemo yekodzero dzevanhu. Musoro VI weCivil Rights Act wa1946 unorambidza rusaruro pahwaro hwedzinza, ruvara, kana kuti mavambo orudzi mupurogiramu nemibato zvinogamuchira betsero yemari yehurumende.

Dare rapamusoro rakatsigirawo kubviswa kwechisakiso chapamutemo mugadziriro dzakati dzeAmerica neUniversity Act (ADA) uye Rusarurano rweNhambo muAuthor Act (ADEA), asi bedzi kusvikira kutambanuko iyo iyi mitemo inomanikidzira IMitemo ye145 yePramendement. Mu [[FL:0]] Board of Trust of the University of Alabamal. Garrett[[FLD:1] [2001]] [2001], Dare raidavira kuti ADASquo; Tit, iyo inodzivisa kusarura basa, kupfuudza matare eAD, anodarika kubvumira kupiwa mhaka kubvumira kubatira basa, anodzorwa kumatare anodzivirira kupfurikidza nokuwana kururamazita. Zvisinei, [FLT] sverenters v[3]

Dare reHurumende parinoedza kugadzirisa kodzero dzepamutemo kana kuti kuisa panzvimbo yadzo kodzero dzarakanzi neDare Repamusorosoro ndedzekudziongorora kana kuti dziine zvimwe zvinhu zvinobatanidzwa.

Zvinotaurwa Nehurumende Nezvirevo Zvetort

Federal Tort Accounties Act (FTCA) inogovera mutengi wedziviriro yapamutemo yeUnited States, ichibvumira masangano avanhu voga kukwidza hurumende nokuda kwezviito zvakati zvinoitirwa vashandi vehurumende. FTCA haashandi kunyika, kupfurikidza nemirairo yayo. Zvisinei, nyika zhinji dzakaita zvirevo zvadzo dzimene zvezviito zvokuti dziviriro yehurumende inodzivisa Hurumende nokuda kwokutaura kwehurumende. Ava vatengi vehurumende vanobatira hurumende vanozvipira uye vanosiana zvikuru mumitengo neganhuriro.

Dare rashandisawo kushandisa chiremera chezvikamu kuti ripedze nyika kudzivirira mamiriro ezvinhu okugamuchira mari yehurumende. MuPakanzi Peace Claus, Congress ingabatanidza migariro kukugamuchirwa kwemari yehurumende, uye Dare Rapamusorosoro rakarangarira kuti kugamuchirwa kwemari yakadaro kunoumba kuziva uye kuisa mari yokuzvidira kwokuzvidira pakuzvidzivirira, chero bedzi mugariro wacho wakajekeswa uye une chokuita nechinangwa chepurogiramu yehurumende. Rehabilitation Act yeG. Chiratiso cha 1973, icho chinorambidza rusaruro rwourema mumapurogiramu anotsigirwa nomutemo, chinoshanda pamuenzaniso uyu. United States inogamuchira mari inogamuchirwa kuva inowirirana neSabata pasi peChiito chehurumende.

Mitemo Yezvakatipoteredza Nemitemo

Mitemo yemhoteredzo yakachengetwawo kudziviriro yehurumende inodzorwa nehurumende mumativi akati. The Cease Water Act, Resociation and Recovery Act (RRRA), uye Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compisensiation, uye Libacy Act (CERCLA) yose ine gadziriro dzinoda kuputswa kwemipimo yemhoteredzo yehurumende. Muzvinoitika zvizhinji, iyi mitemo inotsamira pamubatanidzwa wechiremera cheChikamu 5 uye simba rokushandisa kuti zvisvike nharidzano dzayo dzokugadzirisa.

Dare rakatsigira kazhinji kazhinji gadziriro dzemhoteredzo dzinowirirana nedenho dzezvisakiso zvehurumende apo mutemo unoratidzira zvakajeka vavariro yokubatana kukuvadziko uye apo gadziriro yomutemo inosungirirwa kudzivirira utano, chengeteko, kana kuti migove inowira mumiganhu yeKirenaith Amendment. Zvisinei, miganhu chaiyoiyo ichiripo inokanwa, uye matare akaderera akasvika mhedziso dzakasiana pamusoro pokushanda kwezvakatipoteredza pashure po SAMINOLE RUV .

Basa Rokubvumirana Nekutenderana neKuwaiver

Hakusi kusiirwa kwose kwokudzivisa dziviriro yapamutemo kunobva mukusarudzika. Mitezo ingabvuma nokuzvidira kuwirirana mudare rehurumende, uye Dare Gurusa rakaziva zvimiro zvinoverengeka zvokupara. Kubvuma kungaratidzirwa, sepo kana mutemi wemitemo wehurumende anopa murairo unobvumira sututi inorwisana nehurumende mudare rehurumende. Kubvumira kungarehwawo mumufambiro wehurumende, kunyange zvazvo Dare rave richizengurira kuwana ufakazi hwakajeka hunoshairwa hwedonzo.

Dzidziso yokubvisa inogovera kukwinya kunokosha. Mu Lapides v. Boka reRegents reUniversity System yeGeorgia [2002], Dare rakaramba kuti apo hurumende inobvisa nokuzvidira mhaka mudare rehurumende kudare rehurumende, inobvisa kudzivirira kwayo kwePremendement yePrefected kubva pasututi mudare renyika nokuda kwezvirevo zvinomuka pasi pomutemo. Kurangarira ndiko kuti kubvisa ibvumirano yokuzvidira yehurumende inopesana nokudzivirira. Nheyo imwe cheteyo haisati ichishanda hayo kukutaura kwehurumende, uye Dare rakasiya mubvunzo wokuti kana kubvisa kudzivirira kwemubatanidzwa nokuda kwezviito zvomubatanidzwa.

Sayenzi inodzivisawo kuzvidzivirira pahosha apo inotanga kutora rutivi semapati muzvinoitika zvehurumende.Hurumende yokuti ikwidzire mhaka muhudzo hwedare rehurumende imene kusvikira kuudzori hunomanikidzirwa hunobuda mutengi kana kuti zviitiko zvakafanana. Nenzira yakafanana, hurumende inopindira kana kuti zvimwe inoita rutivi nokushingaira murusarudzo rwehurumende ingarangarirwa kuva yakabvumira kuukuru hwakazara hwedare ’ mavhos.

Zvinetso Zvinoshanda Zvemutemo Wavose Noutungamiriri

Kubatanidzwa kwemitemo yehurumende nehurumende inodzivirira zvirwere zvine migumisiro mikuru inoshanda nokuda kwomuitiro wavanhu vose.Masangano ehurumende, mayunivhesiti ehurumende, maruwa ezvikoro, uye hurumende dzomunharaunda dzinoshanda pasi pechiremera chehurumende dzinofanira kushandisa mitemo yakaoma yokudzivirira zvirwere inosiana nomutemo, nedare, uye nemashoko akapoteredza. Kunzwisisa mitemo iyi kunokosha pakuteerera, kutungamirira ngozi, uye gadziriro yemiitiro inoshanda.

Nokuda kwokuchengetwa kwekodzero dzevanhu, kukwanisa kukwirira mhosva nyika nokuda kwezvakakanganiswa pasi pemitemo yehurumende yakadai seTitle VI, Title IX, uye ADA kwave kuri chishandiso chine simba chokuva nechokwadi chokuti dzidzo, basa, uye mabasa avose zvakaenzana. Zvisinei, ganhuriro dzinoiswa neDare’ Chikamu 5 jurisprudence zvinoreva kuti havasi kupunzika kwose kwekodzero dzevanhu kwakaitwa nehurumende kunoitwa nehurumende. Vateshi navatsigiri vanofanira kusanoyera hwaro hwemitemo nokuda kwechirevoti ipi neipi uye kuyera kana Dare riine dziviriro yapamutemo kana kuti kana hurumende yakakanganisa kudzivirirwa kwayo nokugamuchirwa kwemari yehurumende.

Nokuda kwokuchengetwa kwemhoteredzo, nzvimbo inodzivirira mhoteredzo yapamutemo inotapura mano evagari vomunyika voga namasangano emhoteredzo okuita kuti nyika dzizvidavirire nokuda kwokushatiswa nokusawiriraniswa kwemitemo yehurumende yave ichibetsera mukuzadza nzvimbo dzakasiyiwa nokudzikamiswa nehurumende, asi kubudirira kwadzo kunotsamira pakuda kwematare kutsigira kudzivirirwa kwedziviriro munhare dzepo papapo SAMINOLE RUV denho.

Nokuda kwedzidzo yakakwirira namamwe masangano anobatira hurumende, mitemo yokudzivirira mamiriro ezvinhu inoumba chisarudzo chesangano chechisarudzo chebasa chezvose kuvambira pamiitiro yebasa kusvikira kuchirango chevadzidzi kusvikira kukunzverwa. Mayunivhesiti avose, ayo ari zvombo zvehurumende nokuda kwamadonzo okudzivisa maruramiro okuzvitonga, anofanira kuziva mitemo yakananga inoparira kuvadziko nemigariro umo kudzivirira dziviriro kwakakanganiswa. Zvibvumirano zvemari zveFederal, zvinopa migariro, uye zvibvumirano zvinobatira pamwe zvose zvine miuyo inobvira inofanira kutarisirwa nokungwarira.

Zvinhu Zvichangobva Kuitika Nenhau Dziri Kutanga

Mutemo wokuzvidzora kwehurumende unopfuurira kuva wemhindu. MuMashoko achangobva kupfuura, Dare rapamusoro zvikurusa rakataura mibvunzo pamusoro poukuru hwe Ex Young nyaradzo, kushandiswa kwokudzivisa kuzvidzivirira kumarudzi, uye kuwiriraniswa kwedziviriro nomutemo unobhuroka. Court’ purogiramu yehurumende inoramba ichishanda, uye nhau itsva dzichapfuurira kurondedzera miganhu yokuzvidavirira kwehurumende.

Chinyorwa chiri kumuka ndechokushandiswa kwechigadzikiso chekodzero yokudzivisa zvinhu zvendangariro. Mu Allen v. Cooper [2020], Dare rakaramba kuti Dare harigoni kudzora hurumende nokuda kwokupesana nekodzero dzekodzero dzekodzero dzepamutemo pasi peRemedificiation Claritiation Act nemhaka yokuti Act yakanga isiri nzira inoshandisirwa simba reChikamu 5. Chisarudzo chacho chakasiya varidzi vekodzero dzokubudisisa pasina mushonga unodzivisa maruramiro ekodzero dzemunhu wacho, kunyange zvazvo chikamu cheYoungton Relucty Classification Act chichiripo muzvinoitika zvakafanira. Pattentitement inotaura pamusoro pemhinemhinyidzo dzakafanana, uye yakawedzera kudzora zvinhu zvoruzivo.

Imwe nharaunda iri kubudirira ukama pakati pekudzivisa dziviriro yapamutemo neBankruptic Code. Dare rakarangarira kuti nhau dzokubhuroka dzinonzi inhau dzekubhuroka dzinowanzova murem uye kuti kudzivirirwa kwadzosesarudzi hakudzivisi kushaikwa kwedare kusingabhangi pamutemo pamusoro pekudzorwa kwehurumende nechapanokweretesa ’ nzvimbo. Zvisinei, kusvika pamwero apo hurumende ’ dziviriro yapamutemo ingadzorwa murwiri inodzorwa murwi anopara mhosva dzokurasikirwa nechaputsika inoramba inoramba iripo, uye nhau yacho zvino inhau yokuzvinyiwa mumatunhu anoverengeka.

Kushandisa simba kunorambawo kukwikwidzana kukuru. Mu NFIB v. Sebelius (2012), Dare rakaramba kuti Congress haigoni kutyisidzira kunyima mari yose iripo yeMedicaid kubva kunyika dzinoramba kuwedzera kubhadharwa kwaMedicaid, kukarakadza kuti pane miganhu yemigariro yeChibvumirano ingaiswa pasi peMutengo waClaus. Chisarudzo ichi chine regadziriro ipi neipi yehurumende inoisa mari pahurumende inochengetedza mamiriro ezvinhu ehurumende, uye zvinetso zvomunguva yemberi zvingaedza miganhu yokushandisa mari inobvumirwa.

Kutarisirwa Kwaifanira Kuitwa Vatengesi

Nokuda kwamagweta anomirira vatengi vanotaura zvinorwisana nehurumende dzehurumende, mubvunzo unotangira nguva dzose ndewokuti chigaro chinodzivisa kuzvidzivirira kwadziri chinodzivisa chiito here. Kunzvera kunoda kunzverwa kwokungwarira kwezvisakiso zvina zvinobvira nokuda kwokukunda dziviriro: (1) kana Congress ine dziviriro yapamutemo kupfurikidza nomutemo unoshandiswa kuSangano 5 yeGaramende ye 144th Amendment; (2) kana hurumende yakatapurira dziviriro yayo nomutoo wakajeka kana kuti unokarakadzwa nomutoo unoreruka; (3) kana hurumende yakabvumira kuwirirana nenhau yehurumende kupfurikidza nokugamuchira mamiriro ezvinhu akajeka ewaker; uye (4) kana sututi yacho ingapfuurira kurwisana nomukuru wehurumende pasi pe [[FLT:] rutivi [FLT] Young [FLD] kana kuti rutivi rwakarongerwa nokuda kwedzidziso inoteverwa.

Imwe neimwe yeidzi rondedzero ine ganhuriro dzayo imene. Kudzorwa pasi peChikamu 5 kunoda kuratidza kuti Congress yakazivisa mutoo womufambiro usina kurongwa uye kuti mushonga wemitemo unowirirana uye unowirirana nekuvadziko yakaziviswa. Mutezo weReaver unoda ufakazi hwakajeka hwemvumo husati huri hurerutsi. Kudzorwa kwemashoko kunofanira kuva kuziva nokuzvidira, uye mugariro wacho unofanira kududzwa zvakajeka murugwaro rwemitemo. Chikamu cheYoung' chinowanika bedzi nokuda kwokuputsa mutemo unopfuurira uye haisi kubvumira kukuvadza.

Zvomene inoshanda ndeyokuti kutaura kwakawanda kwapamutemo mukurwisana nehurumende dzehurumende hakugoni kurondwa mudare rehurumende. Vatakuri vanofanira kugadzirira kutsvaka yamuro mudare rehurumende, umo mitemo yokudzivisa zvirwere yapamutemo ingava inopa zvikuru kuvapurisa, kana kuti kuronda mishonga yokudzora kupfurikidza namasangano ehurumende namasangano anotarisira. Zvisarudzo zvapamutemo zvinoda nzwisiso hurusa yenzvimbo inodzivirirwa nenzvero yechokwadi yezvipo nemishonga zvinowanika.

Nguva Yemberi yaChangamire weHurumende Mugadziriro Yehurumende

Dzidziso yokudzivisa kuzviisa pasi pehurumende haisati iri yakarerekera. Inoumbwa nokubatanidzwa kwechiito chesangano, kududzira kwedare, uye zvinodikanwa zvinoshanda zvokutonga mugadziriro yomubatanidzwa. Dare Gurusa ’ rehurumende rakaisa miganhu inokosha pakukwanisa kweCongress kuzviisa pasi pezvisakafanira zvakavanzika zvavanhu, asi ganhuriro idzodzo hadzina kudzivisa Congress kugadzira nzira dzine revo dzokuzvidavirira apo inoshanda muchiremera chayo chebumbiro remitemo.

Kutarira mberi, miitiro inoverengeka sezvingabvira ichaumba nguva yemberi yedzidziso yacho. Chokutanga, Court’ masumo anopfuuridzirwa kunangidzira ngwariro pachiremera chehurumende nehurumende zvinokarakadza kuti ganhuriro itsva pasimba rokudzivisa kukuvadziko dzinobvira, zvikurukuru munharaunda umo Congress yakaedza kuwedzera ganhuriro kupfuura izvo mirangariro yeDare seri madikanwa kusimbisa zvibvumikiso zvinokosha zvemitemo. Chechipiri, kutsamira pakushandisa migariro kudzivirira dziviriro yomuviri kuchapfuurira kuparira kuiswa mumitengo pamusoro pesimba neganhuriro zvokushandisa. Chechitatu, rutivi rwe [[FLT:] Kurect:] dzidziso icharamba iri chishandiso chinokosha nokuda kwokuisa mutemo unorwisana navakuru, uye miganhu yayo ichaedzwa mumugariro mumugariro wapamutemo, kuchengeteka kwoutano, kubatanidza kuchengeteka kwemitezo.

Kusawirirana pakati pouchangamire hwehurumende nokuzvidavirira kwehurumende kuri mugadziriro yebumbiro remitemo. Mutemo weFederal wakakudziridza nokudzvinyirira zvose zviri zviviri ukuru hwokusatapurwa kwoutongi hwenyika, kuparira boka romutemo rakaoma uye pane dzimwe nguva rinopokanidzana. Nokuda kwaavo vanoshanda pamharadzano dzomutemo, mirau, uye tarisiro yavose, kunzwisisa iyi nzvimbo hakusati kuri kwokusarudza. Kunokosha kukushandiswa kunobudirira kwamaruramiro, kutarisirwa kwegadziriro dzehurumende dzine mutoro, uye chirongwa chinopfuurira chokuvaka gadziriro yomubatanidzwa wakarurama zvikuru nounozvidavirira.