Yiyiphi Inkqubo Efanelekileyo?

Yinkqubo elindelekileyo esemthethweni ekufuneka urhulumente ahlonele onke amalungelo asemthethweni afanele anikwe umntu. Lisiseko senkqubo yomthetho yaseMerika, elungiselelwe ukuthintela izenzo zobugqwetha okanye zokungalungisi zikarhulumente onokuthi ahluthe umntu ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla. Le ngcamango ifakwe kuzo zombini iSimemezelo seFindth (esisebenza kurhulumente wesizwe) kunye noMphetho-Mthethweno-mda (owongeza ukhuseleko olufanayo kurhulumente kunye noorhulumente basekuhlaleni). Kwisiseko sayo, imigaqo efanelekileyo iyakuqinisekisa ukuba imithetho iya kuba nengqiqo, icace, isetyenziswe ngokulinganayo, kwaye abantu baya kufumana isaziso esilungileyo nenentsingiselo phambi kokuba kubekho nayiphi nayiphi na inkcaso.

Imvelaphi Yembali Yenkqubo Efanele Ilandelwe

Ibinzana elithi “ukuya phambili kwinkqubo yomthetho” lavela okokuqala kumthetho wamaNgesi wama- 1354, kodwa imvelaphi yawo ibuyela emva ukuya kutsho kwiMagna Carta ngo-1215. U-Claus 39 weMagna Carta wavakalisa oku:“ Akukho mntu okhululekileyo oya kuthi abanjwe okanye avalelwe entolongweni... ngaphandle komgwebo osemthethweni wabalingana naye okanye ngomthetho welizwe.” Le migaqo yokuqala ikhuseleke nxamnye namandla onyanzelekileyo owesithsaba ekugqibeleni yaya kufikelela kwindlela yale mihla yokuqonda imfuneko. UmGaqo-siseko waqulu-siseko waqululisa lo mgaqo, uqonda ukuba ibutho elikhululekileyo alinakho ngaphandle komthetho osemthethweni owenzelwe ukuxhatshazwa ngokusetyenziswa kakubi kukarhulumente.

Namhlanje, amalungelo afanelekileyo enkqubo aphakathi kweyona miba yezomGaqo-siseko ebekwe iliso kwiinkundla zaseMerika. INkundla ePhakamileyo isoloko izitolika ezizizo eziphuculayo ukuqinisekisa ukuba amandla karhulumente avavanywa ngokusesikweni komgaqo-siseko kunye nokuhlonelwa kwenkululeko esisiseko. Kwimbono enzulu yembali, inikela uhlolo olubanzi lwenkqubo yemfundiso .

“ Akukho Rhulumente iya... kuhlutha nabani na ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo yomthetho.” — ISindululo se-14th, Icandelo 1

Iindidi zenkqubela elindelekileyo

INkundla ePhakamileyo yahlula-hlula inkqubo eyiyo yaba ziindidi ezimbini ezahlukeneyo kodwa ezingenani: inkqubo encinci efunekayo kunye nenkqubo efunekayo yokuchaza. Ukuqonda umahluko kubalulekile kubemi abafuna ukwazi indlela amalungelo abo asebenza ngayo kwiimeko ezahlukeneyo ezingokwasemthethweni.

Inkqubo elindelekileyo

Inkqubo esisiseko esisiseko ikhusela amalungelo athile asisiseko ekungeneleni korhulumente, kwanaxa urhulumente elandela iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo. Umzekelo, ilungelo lokutshata, ilungelo lokukhulisa abantwana, nelungelo lokuzilawula ngokwamalungu omzimba zonke zikhuselekile phantsi kwenkqubo elindelekileyo. Ukuba urhulumente ugqithise umthetho ovala yonke imitshato, lo mthetho uza kungabikho ngokomthetho okhoyo, hayi ngenxa yendlela onyanzeliswe ngayo, kodwa ngenxa yoko iyakunqanda. Le nkqubo yendlela yokuzilawula ikhuselekile ikhuseleke njenge [[FLT:] RGU] umele ukhululeke kakhulu. [[[FFLT:1]] [12] [12]

Inkqubo eQhelekileyo

Inkqubo efunekayo, ngokwahlukileyo, ibhekisa kwi indlela echane ngayo. Iimfuno ezithe ngqo zixhomekeke kwimeko. Umzekelo, inkqubo efuneka kulwaphulo-mthetho ithe kratya kakhulu kunenkqubo ekwindlela yokuvala ityala. Ityala lesakhiwo sesikolo limele lifumane isaziso esifanelekileyo, ithuba elinentsingiselo lokuviwo, kunye nomenzi-zigqibo ongenamkhethe. [[FLT:] u-196]

“ Inkqubo efunekayo yeprojekthi asiyonkqubo yobuchule yokukhawula enomxholo ongadityaniyo nengahambelaniyo nexesha, indawo, kunye neemeko.” — IJaji Felix Frankfurter, . IAint Anti-Fascist Refugeency Commmm. v.General[[FL:1]

Amalungu angundoqo amalungelo enkqubela alindelekileyo

Amalungelo afanelekileyo akhethekileyo ahambelana ngoko mongo, kodwa iziqalelo eziliqela ziqhelekile phantse kuzo zonke iziseko. Ezi ziqinisekisa ukuba abantu baphathwa ngesidima nangobulungisa ngalo lonke ixesha kuthethwa ngezomthetho.

Qaphela

Isaziso esifanelekileyo siyimfuneko yokuqala yenkqubo efunekayo. Umntu kufuneka axelelwe ngetyala okanye acetyiswe ukuba ayenze ngendlela efike ngexesha elifanelekileyo necacileyo. Umzekelo, ukuba umnini-ndlu ujongene nokugxothwa, kufuneka anikeze isaziso esibhaliweyo esichaza izizathu nomhla wokuchotshelwa kwetyala. Ukuba umntu ubanjiwe, kufuneka axelelwe ngolwaphulo-mthetho oluthile atyholwa ngalo. Ngaphandle kwesaziso esifanelekileyo, abantu abanako ukulungiselela ukuzikhusela okanye ukuthatha inxaxheba kwicandelo.

Ithuba Lokuviwa

Ukunika isaziso nje akwanele. Umntu kufuneka abe nethuba lokwenene lokuphendula, ubungqina obukhoyo, ukubiza amangqina, kwaye aphikisane nabo. Eli lungelo libizwa ngokuba “ilungelo lokuva" kwaye lisiseko seziphumo zenkqubela-mva. Goldberg v. Kelly [1970], iNkundla ePhakamileyo ibambe ukuba abamkeli bentlalo babenelungelo lokuva iziphumo ezicacileyo ngaphambi kokuba ziphendulwe. INkundla yaqiqa ngelithi kwane nelahleko yexeshana yeenzuzo inokubangela umonakalo ongalungisekiyo, kwaye ifanele ukuba abafumana ithuba lokuchaza ukuba ukuchana kwento imposiso kuphoso beyiphosakele.

Umenzi wesigqibo sobuzwe

Inkqubo elindelekileyo ifuna ukuba umntu okanye iqela elenza isigqibo sokugqibela libe lingakhethi buso kwaye lingacalulani. Oku kuthetha ukuba ijaji, igosa elivayo, okanye ijaji yetyala lemali ayinakuba netyala lobuqu okanye elemali kwisiphumo. ICaperton v.A.T. Massey Coal. [2009], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yayalela ukuba ijaji imele iphinde izibeke xa igalelo le phulo lidala “ukunganyaniseki." Oku kukwakulungileyo kuthintela iimpikiswano nomdla, njengelungu lolawulo elalikhe lisebenza njengomtshutshisi kwityala efanayo.

Ukufanelekela Icebiso

Nangona ingengagqibekanga kwinkqubela nganye yabemi, ilungelo lokumela ngokusemthethweni lilelona cala lenkqubo efunekayo yolwaphulo-mthetho. Gideon v. Wainright [1963], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yabamba ukuba amagqwetha kufuneka anikezele kumagqwetha angenalo elinye elingenako ukufikelela kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho. Le sigqibo kamva sanyuselwa kulo naliphi na ityala apho ummangalelwa ejamelene nokuvalelwa okuko kanye ([] Argisterer v. Ham, 1972], icebo lokuqinisekisa ukuba abamangali bengenakukwazi ukuqhuba imithetho entsokonye yobungqina kunye nenkqubo yokuzikhusela, nokuziphepha ngokwawo ngokwawo. Kwanolwazi oluqhelekileyo, nangona kungekho migaqo yemithetho yemvume yoluntu ebandakanya izindululo.

Ukubaluleka Kwamalungelo Afanelekileyo

Amalungelo okusebenza asizomfundiso ezingekho ngqiqweni ezingokwasemthethweni, zisebenza kwiinjongo ezibalulekileyo ezichaphazela ubomi bommi ngamnye. Nazi izizathu eziyintloko ezibangela ukuba akhuselwe:

  • Inguwo ephezulu yomthetho: inkqubo elindelekileyo iqinisekisa ukuba imithetho isetyenziswa ngokuzingisileyo kwaye ngokuqikelelwa, hayi ngokusekelwe kwiminqweno yobuqu okanye kwikhethe. Olu nyango lulinganayo luyindawo yedemokhrasi.
  • ikhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye: ngokulinganisela urhulumente ophangaleleyo, inkqubo efanelekileyo ithintela urhulumente ekuvaleni ngenkani, ekuthimbeni impahla, okanye ekuthinteleni ukhetho lobuqu ngaphandle kobulungisa. Olu khuselo lubalulwe ngakumbi ngexesha longxamiseko okanye amaxesha esiphithiphithi sezobupolitika.
  • Intembeko yoluntu yoluntu: Xa abemi bebona ukuba ityala lomthetho lilungile kwaye licace gca, basengozini yokuthemba inkqubo yokusesikweni kwaye bathobele imithetho yayo. Ukungagqibeleli okucingelwayo kubangela ukungathembeki nokuchasa.
  • [[NTLA] Iqinisekisa ukufikelela kwisigwebo: Inkqubo elindelekileyo iqinisekisa ukuba kwanawona malungu abuthathaka kwibutho labantu(*, amahlwempu, asematyaleni, akwimeko ephantsi, angachaza imeko yawo kwaye acel ’ umngeni izenzo zikarhulumente. Ngaphandle kwezi zikhuseli, ukungalungelelani kolawulo kungenza okusesikweni kube lilungelo kwizityebi.
  • Ikhulula ngokuphosakeleyo: iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo zinciphisa ubungozi bezigqibo eziphosakeleyo, njengokubanjwa komntu omsulwa okanye ukuphelisa iinzuzo zikawonke wonke ngokuphosakeleyo. Indleko yempazamo idla ngokutshabalalisa umntu, ngoko ibutho labantu linomdla onamandla wokuyenza ilungile.

Ukubona indlela esebenzayo ngayo inkqubo kwimo-mongo yale mihla, i-website yase-U.S. inika ingcaciso eyenzelwe abafundi nabemi .

Inkqubela Efanelekileyo Kumatyala Ezaphuli - mthetho

Kumthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho, amalungelo enkqubo afanelekileyo akwindawo yawo eqinileyo. Imeko ```Ilahleko ekhoyo yenkululeko, igama, kwanobomi). Awona mlinganiselo uphezulu wokukhuselwa kwemibutho. La malungelo alandelayo akhuselwa ngokukhethekileyo ngabamangalelwa.

Ukuya Kwityala Elikhawulezileyo

ISithandathu IsiHlanziso siqinisekisa “ukucinezelwa kwetyala likawonke-wonke” ukuthintela abamangalelwa ekuvalweni ekubanjweni kangangeenyanga okanye iminyaka. INkundla ePhakamileyo iseke uvavanyo lokulinganisela olunefakta ukufumana ukuba eli lungelo liphulwe kusini na, iqwalasela ubude bolibaziseko, isizathu salo, nokuba ummangalelwa uqinisekile ukuba unelungelo, kwaye ikhethe elibangelwa ( Barker v. Wingo, 1972).

Ukubukelwa Ngomnye Umfundisi Ongakhethi Buso

Abameli kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho banelungelo lokuya kwijaji ekhethwe kwicandelo elifanelekileyo elinqumla uluntu. Abasemalungwini abanakukhutshwa ngenxa yohlanga, ubufana, okanye ezinye iimpawu ezikhuselweyo. Ngexesha lejaji eyingozi, omabini amacala angabuza ukuba abhence ityala lingcoliswe kukupapashwa kwetyala okanye ucalucalulo olusemthethweni, inkundla mayifake igcisa elitsha lenkundla yejaji okanye itshintshe indawo. Ilungelo kwinkundla engakhethi-mthetho liqinisekisa ukuba isigwebo sibonise umgwebo weqela labantu, hayi iqela labagwebi elichola ityala elinyulwe ngesandla.

Ukukhuselwa ekuzichaseni

ISichibiyelo sesihlanu sithi akukho mntu “unyanzelwayo nakweliphi na ityala lolwaphulo-mthetho ukuba abe lingqina.” Oku kuthetha ukuba abamangalelwa abanakunyanzeleka ukuba banikele ubungqina, kwaye abatshutshisi abanakusebenzisa intlonipho njengobungqina betyala. imaranda--ne. I-Arizona [1966] isigqibo esifuna ukuba amapolisa azise abarhane ngamalungelo abo ukuba bangathethi, bangabi nammeli ngexesha lokuncinwa kwetyala. Ukuba ezi zilumkiso azinikwanga, naziphi na iingxelo ezifumanekayo zinokusetyenziswa enkundlele. Oku kuyimfuneko ukuthintela ukuvuma iingxelo ezinyanzelekileyo nokuqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente wakha ityala lawo ngokuzimela ngokwawo.

Ukufanele Ubhenele

Ngelixesha lingengagqibekanga, ilungelo lokubhenela kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho liyindawo esisiseko. Urhulumente ngamnye unika ubuncinane umlinganiselo omnye wohlolo oluchaphazelekayo. Ummangalelwa angakucel ’ umngeni iimpazamo zomthetho, njengemiyalelo engafanelekanga, ukuvunywa kwemiyalelo yabachopheli-tyala, okanye ukungaphumeleli kobungqina obungekho mthethweni. Kumatyala amakhulu, kufuneka ulwenzelo olongezelelekileyo (oobabini oorhulumente norhulumente) ukunciphisa ubungozi bokubulala umntu omsulwa. Inkqubo ye-appellate inguvavanyo olunetyala olunzima kwaye iqinisekisa ukuba ukuphambanga okufanelekileyo kuyalungiswa.

“ Ilungelo lesibheno asiyonto efunekayo kwinkqubo efanelekileyo, kodwa xa imeko inika isibheno, kufuneka isetyenziswe ngendlela engakhubekisi inkqubo efanelekileyo.” — Griffin v.Illinois [1956]

Imodeli Elindelekileyo Komzekelo Wangaphakathi

Inkqubo elindelekileyo ayisebenzi kuphela kwinkundla yezaphuli-mthetho kodwa nakwimicimbi yamakhaya apho urhulumente efuna ukususa izilangazelelo ezibalulekileyo. Amalungelo afanelekileyo enkqubo yoluntu aquka iinguqu ezininzi zeemeko, ngokusuka kwiimpikiswano eziphathelele impahla ukuya ekuphelisweni kwamalungelo abazali.

Iqela lasekunene lokuphawula kwi Aspeyinti Zangaphakathi

Xa ityala liqukunjelwa, ummangalelwa kufuneka anikezelwe ngokusemthethweni ngekopi yesikhalazo kunye nezicelo. Esi saziso kufuneka “sibalwe ngokusengqiqweni” ukwazisa umntu ngesenzo ( uMlanye v. Central Hanover Bank & Trust Co., 1950]. Umsebenzi ongalunganga ungalukhupha ugwebo. Umzekelo, ukuba umnini-ndlu ufaka isaziso sokugxotha emnyango kodwa uyazi ukuba i-10 la magumbi alele ebhedlele, ukuze isaziso singanele ukwanelisa inkqubo efunekayo.

Ukukwazi Ukuva Ngendlela Entle

Iligigasi yangaphakathi inelungelo lokunikela ubungqina, amangqina anqamlezayo, kwaye yenza iimpikiswano zomthetho phambi kwejaji okanye iqumrhu lolawulo. Iinkqubo ezizodwa zinokuhluka. Iinkundla ezincinci zisoloko zisebenzisa imithetho eyenziwe lula, kanti intengiso entsonkothileyo ibandakanya ukufunyanwa okuninzi. Kwimicimbi yolawulo "ezifana nokuva iinzuzo zokukhubazeka, ilayisensi yobuchule, okanye ukupheliswa komsebenzi karhulumente kunelungelo lokuva kodwa kumele kulungiswe ngenkqubo esisiseko. Ityala lezentengiso libandakanya ukufunyanwa koovimba abakhubazekileyo v. Kelly) kwakhona liyafundisa: libalelwa ukuba abaphulayo abafumana uncedo banelungelo lokufumana intlungela kwangaphambili ngenxa yokuva iinzuzo ezinokubangelwa yingozi.

Unelungelo Lokuzihlola

Emva kwengxelo yenkundla yolawulo okanye yenkundla ephantsi, amaqela anelungelo lokubhenela kwinkundla ephakamileyo. Uhlolo lwezeejaji luqinisekisa ukuba umbutho awuthathi nxaxheba ngokusemthethweni okanye ugqithe igunya lawo elisemthethweni. Kumaphondo amaninzi, uhlolo lwenkundla lulinganiselwe kwimibuzo yomthetho, hayi inyaniso, kodwa kwanale ngxoxo imxinwa yinkqubo ebalulekileyo. Umzekelo, ukuba ibhodi elawulayo iyayikhanyela imvume ngaphandle kokucacisa ingqiqo yayo, inkundla isenokulithumela ityala ukuba liphinde liqululwe ngokufanelekileyo. Ngaphandle kohlalutyo olugwebo, amaqulundlo olawulo anokuyichasa ngokufanelekileyo imigaqo yomgaqo-siseko.

Ukufunda ngenkqubo efunekayo yoluntu kwimimandla enjengemisebenzi nezindlu, isikhokelo ACLU kwinkqubo efanelekileyo kwizenzo zikarhulumente[[FLT: 1] sinika imizekelo esebenzayo.

Ucelomngeni Kumalungelo Afanelekileyo

Naphezu komgaqo-siseko, abantu abaninzi baseMerika bajongene nemiqobo yehlabathi yokonwaba ukhuseleko olupheleleyo olufanelekileyo. Olu celomngeni lubhalwe kakuhle kwaye lufuna ingqalelo kubenzi bemithetho, abaxhasi nabemi.

Ukungabikho kokufikelela kumelo olusemthethweni

Esinye sezisongelo ezibalulekileyo kwinkqubo efunekayo kukungalufumani uncedo olunempumelelo. Kwimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho, abakhuseli bakawonke-wonke bayafumaneka, kodwa ezi ofisi zisoloko zixhotyiswe kakhulu kwaye zisetyenzwa kakhulu, nto leyo ekhokelela kwi-cono [ ukukhanyela uncedo olusebenzayo. Kubantu abafumana imali ephantsi. Kungekho mthethweni nelungelo lokufumana isiluleko esikhululekileyo, kodwa kusekho ingxaki enzima kakhulu. Abaqeshi bomthetho-mthetho bajongene nokungabikho kwegqwetha, abazali baphulukana nemvume, yaye abatyala batshaye bangenawo amalungelo abo. “uGidiyo . UGidiyonko-Gidiyonl" utyhalele ulwando olusemthethweni, kodwa uyaqhubeka.

IBhaas Nocalulo Kwinkqubo Esemthethweni

Ucalucalulo olupheleleyo nolucacileyo lungachaphazela lonke iqondo lenkqubela esemthethweni. Uphando lubonisa ukuba abamangalelwa abaBlack ne-Hispanic basengozini yokuvalelwa phambi komthetho, bafumane izigwebo ezithe kratya, babekwe ityala elingaphezulu kunabamangalelwa abamhlophe abamangalelwa ngetyala elifanayo. Ucalucalulo lobuhlanga lungachaphazela ukukhethwa kwejaji, nangona kuvaliwe umGaqo-siseko ekuhlazisweni kwemi, ukukhubazeka kwemeko yezoqoqosho, ukukhubazeka, ukugonya, nokuzichaza kobufana neentlobano zesini kunokubangela ukuba banyanzele ukuphathwa ngokungafaniyo.

Iinkundla Ezinzima Nezenzo Ezikhawulezayo

Urhulumente omninzi kunye neenkundla zasekuhlaleni zijongene netyala elikhulu. Abagwebi basenokuba nemizuzu nje embalwa yokunikezela kwityala ngalinye, kwaye ukucel'isicelo kuba yindlela engagqibekanga kunokuba kuvavanywe ngocoselelo kobungqina. Kwinkundla yezithuthi, kwinkundla yenkundla yengingqi, nakwimiba encinane, uxinzelelo lokulungisa amatyala ngokukhawuleza lungakhokelela ekuchotshelweni ngokukhawuleza apho abaphulaphuli be-mali bengafumani nto. I-COVOVID-19 ekhuphele ezi ngxaki; ngoxa ukuva okuthe ngqo kuvumela iinkundla ukuba zihlale zivuliwe, kwakhona zadala imingeni yokufikelela kobugcisa, ukuqonda, nokungafihliswa kwenkundla.

Ukufikelela okuphezulu koMthetho

Izenzo zikarhulumente ezigqitha imigaqo engokwesithethe efunekayo yokukhusela inkqubo , njengemiyalelo yezolawulo olulawulayo efaka umkhuhlane ngaphandle kwesaziso, okanye imithetho ethintela amalungelo okufuduka ekunyanzelweni kokufuduka. Kwiminyaka yakutshanje, iingxwabangxwaba ezifunekayo kwiikoleji (kwizenzo ezingafanelekanga zesini), ekugxotheni iindlebe, nakumatyala okhuseleko lwesizwe ibalaselise iingxwabangxwaba phakathi kobuchule, ukhuseleko, nokusesikweni. Umzekelo, [[FLT: 0]] ukhokelo lwe-DOJ kwinkqubo efanelekileyo yemiqathango yezonyango yengqondo yobomi [ lunika ukuqonda indlela ezi ntsontenxa zonke ezinokusetyenziswa koshishino-o-o-o-othelo-o.

Isiphelo

Amalungelo okusebenza akuyonto ithethwayo esemthethweni, kwaye azizizixhobo eziluncedo ezikhusela ummi ngamnye ekusetyenzisweni kwegunya likarhulumente. Enoba unenxaxheba kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho, xa ufuna ukucela uncedo lukarhulumente, ukujamelana nokugxothwa, okanye uncinwa nje ngamapolisa, ukuqonda la malungelo kungenza umahluko phakathi kokuphathwa ngesidima nokuqeshwa ngenkqubo esoloko ixabisa isantya ngaphezu kokusesikweni.

Njengommi, ungayixhasa inkqubo efunekayo ngokuxhasa iinkqubo zoncedo ezisemthethweni, ngokuvota abagwebi abaxhasa le migaqo yokukhusela, nangokuhlala benolwazi ngomthetho ocetyisiweyo onokuthi unciphise imigaqo yesithethe. Imigaqo ebekwe kwiMithetho-mvisiswano yesihlanu neyeshumi elinesine iyinxalenye yelifa lethu esahlulelene ngalo; ukubeka imbeko kufuna ukuphaphapha nokuzibophelela kokusesikweni kwabo bonke.