Table of Contents
Isiseko Samandulo Samalungelo Abemi
Ukuganana kwenkqubo yomthetho waseMerika nokulingana kukwixesha lokuphinda ivuselelwa kwemfazwe yamakhaya. Ukwenziwa kwemida ye 13, ye-14, neye15 yohlaziyo phakathi ko1865 no1870 kwaphelisa ubukhoboka, ukumisela ubuzibulo ngokulinganayo, kwaye kwakwalela ucalucalulo lobuhlanga. Noko ke, la madinga angokomGaqo-siseko ajamelana nokuchaswa ngokukhawuleza yiMiqathango eBlack, imithetho kaJim Crow, kunye nokucinezelwa ngogonyamelo kobudlelane obunenxaxheba kwezobupolitika obuNtlavu.
Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo (1883 kwityala lamaLungelo sawakhupha ngokunempumelelo amatyala amalungelo abantu ngo1875, siwisa umthetho wokuba iBhunga alinakulwalela ucalulo lwangasese. Esi sigqibo savula ucango kumazwe ukunyanzelisa ucalulo lohlanga olusemthethweni. Kwiminyaka elishumi elinesithathu kamva, iNkundla yakhupha esona sigqibo saziwayo sobulinganayo.
[[UMTL: 0] Plessy v. Ferguson (1996): Ohlukeneyo kodwa uyalingana
UHomer Plessy, indoda eyayinguMnyama omnye wesibhozo phantsi komthetho weLouisiana, ngabom yaphula umthetho karhulumente wokwahlukana kweCar ngokuhlala kwinqwelo- mafutha emhlophe kuphela. INkundla Ephakamileyo yaxhasa umthetho wokwahlula iLouisiana, iseka imfundiso "ehlukeneyo kodwa elinganayo" eyakugunyazisa ucalucalulo olusemthethweni phantse phantse ngamashumi amathandathu eminyaka. UJaji Henry Billings Brown wabhala uninzi lwama-7-1 ukuba amaziko awenziweyo awazange abonise ubuncinane balo naluphi na uhlanga.
IJaji uJohn Marshall Harlan engomnye wale mpikiswano yangqina ukubuprofetwa: "UmGaqo-siseko wethu umfiliba, kwaye akawazi okanye akawanyamezela amahlelo phakathi kwabemi." uHarlan walumkisa ukuba umthetho uzaku "zimisela uhlaselo... kumalungelo avunyiweyo abemi abamibala. Ngaphantsi Phofulm, , zenza iinkqubo zokwahlukanisa imibala ezigquma izikolo, izibhedlele, izibhedlele, iipaki, iindlwana, kunye nemithombo yamanzi.
Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954): Ukujika iNyaka yeXesha lokuHlanganisa
IKhomishini yeSizwe yeNkxaso-mali yoNcitho loLuntu oluBanzi (NAACP) engokwasemthethweni, ekhokelwa yiJaji yeNkundla ePhakamileyo uThurpo Gull Marshall, ngokucwangcisa imbambano yokukhetha ngokujolisa imfundo kawonke-wonke. Brown[ ityala lahlanganisa amacala amahlanu ahlukeneyo eKansas, eMzantsi Carolina, eVirginia, eDelaware, naseWashington, D.C, emela abantwana abamnyama abavuma ukuvunyelwa kwizikolo ezimhlophe kuphela.
IJaji enkulu uWarren wanika isigqibo esivumelanayo esithi amaziko emfundo awahlukeneyo awalingani ngokwemvelo. INkundla yasebenzisa uphando lwenzululwazi yentlalo, kuquka uphando lukaKenneth Clark, ukubonisa ukuba ukuhlukanisa abantwana abamnyama kubangela iimvakalelo zokungaxabiseki ukuze "kuchaphazela iintliziyo neengqondo zabo ngendlela engenakuze ipheliswe." Esi sigqibo sesaziko sendalo sarhoxa Pnety v. Ferguson[FLD:1] kwaye sanikela isiseko esisemthethweni se-Politiki Rights Transport.
Isigqibo seNkundla esalandelayo ngo1955 Brown II yayalela ukuba kusetyenziswe identian "ngesantya sabo bonke," ibinzana elavumela amaphondo asemazantsi ukuba alibazise uthotho lwezolawulo kangangeminyaka. Ezinye isithili zavala izikolo zikawonke wonke ngokupheleleyo kunokuba zidibane. UMongameli Eisenhower wanyanzelisa umthetho ngokuthumela amajoni karhulumente kwiLittle Rock, Arkansans, ngo1955 ukukhusela abafundi abaNsundu kwiSikolo esiphezulu.
Ithuba Lokufumana Amalungelo Asekuhlaleni
I-1954 Isigqibo savuselela omabini amalungelo abantu kunye nokuchasana komhlophe. Umbutho wasebenzisa iindlela zokusebenza ngqo kuquka ukuhlala, ukuhamba ngenkululeko, kunye nohambo lobuninzi ngexesha elinye ulandela ubuchule bomthetho obuvelisa imimiselo yeNkundla ePhakamileyo.
Montgomery Bus Boycott kunye Browder v. Gayle (1956)
Ukubanjwa kukaRosa Parks ngoDisemba 1, 1955 ngenxa yokwala ukunikezela kwisihlalo sakhe sebhasi kwabangela iMontgomery Bus Boycott, ukuqhankqalaza kwenani labantu ababhinqileyo iintsuku ezingama-381 okwaba lixesha elichazayo leKhavinity Rights Movement. Nangona iParks idla ngokuchazwa njengomthungi odiniweyo, eneneni wayengumxhasi we-NAACP oqeqeshiweyo owayeye kwicandelo lokulwa kwempumlo kwiSikolo saseHighlander Folk.
Ucelomngeni lomthetho lodidi lwenqanawa olunomthetho, Browder v. Gayle, yahlasela ngqo ingumthetho-siseko wemithetho ye-location ye-Montgomery's translate. Iqela lejaji ezintathu zeNkundla yeSithili lilawula ngoJuni 1956 ukuba ukulawulwa koodula kwabasebenzi kwaphula umthetho weSinyuso-Mthethweni we-14. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yaqinisekisa esi sigqibo ngoNovemba 1956, kwaza kwaphela umfana u-Cott waphela ngoDisemba emva kokuba kufike isindululo seNkulwano yeNkundla. Impumelelo yabonisa oko kulungelelanisa isenzo esingqalileyo kunye nocwangciso olusemthethweni lwasemthethweni yahlula.
Indlebe yase Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964): Ukuvavanya uMthetho waMalungelo oMsebenzi
Emva kokubulawa kukaMongameli John F. Kennedy, uMongameli Lyndon B. Johnson wabophelela ukudlula koMthetho wamaLungelo waMalungelo oMsebenzi ka-1964, owona mthetho ukhukulisekileyo wamalungelo abantu ukususela ekuhlaziyweni kwakhona. Isihloko II soMthetho salwalela ucalucalulo kwiindawo zokuhlala zikawonke-wonke, kuquka iihotele, iivenkile zokutyela, kunye namaholo emidlalo.
Abanini bamashishini ngoko nangoko balucel ’ umngeni umgaqo-siseko womthetho. INtlondi yaseAtlanta Motel, eyayingavumi ukuqesha amagumbi eendwendwe ezimnyama, yaphikisa ngelithi iBhunga lingaphaya kwegunya lalo lorhwebo uClaus ngokulawula amashishini asekuhlaleni. INkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa uMgaqo-siseko wamalungelo abantu, ilawula ukuba ucalucalulo lweentlanga kwizindlu zikawonke wonke luchaphazele kakhulu urhwebo lwamazwe angaphandle.
IJaji uTom C. Clark wabhala ukuba "ulawulo" ubungqina phambi kweKhomishini babonisa ukuba ucalucalulo lwaphazamisa uhambo norhwebo lwamazwe ahlukeneyo. Esi sigqibo saqinisekisa ukuba iKhomishini ingasebenzisa amandla ayo orhwebo ukulwa nocalulo lwangasese, ivale umngxuma ovulwe yi-1883 Ityala lamaLungelo .
Uphumo v. Virginia (1967): Ukukhupha imithetho echasene neMiscegeneation
De kwangowe-1967, amaphondo ali-16 agcina imithetho enqanda ukutshata kwabantu abahlukeneyo. URichard noMildred Loving, indoda emhlophe nebhinqa elintsundu, batshata eWashington, D.C., ngowe-1958, babuyela kwilizwe labo laseVirginia. Amapolisa ahlasela ikhaya labo ebusuku, awabamba, kwaye abongoza ukuba aphule umthetho we-radian Healherity ka-Virginia ukuze aphephe intolongo.
ILovings yafudukela kwiD.C. kodwa yaphoswa yingingqi yayo yaseVirginia. Ngoncedo lwe-ACLU, balucel ’ umngeni ulwahlulelo lwabo. INkundla ePhakamileyo ngamxhelo mnye yawisa phantsi yonke imithetho eseleyo echasene nokungalawuleki. IJaji enkulu uWarren wabhala ukuba umtshato "wenye yamalungelo abantu abangekho semthethweni" kwaye ucalucalucalulo lobuhlanga alunanjongo yasemthethweni ngaphandle "kokucalucalulo lobuhlanga oluluvo olulukileyo."
Kamva uRichard Lovert wathi ngentshukumisa yakhe: “Ndathi kumgwebi, Ndiyamthanda umfazi wam, wathi, Awunakumtshata,... ndifuna ukuxelela abantwana bethu ukuba baza kubona izinto ezahlukeneyo. Kusekho indlela egoso ngaphambili. Imithetho ihlala isisiseko sokumisela umtshato njengelungelo elisisiseko elingenamiqathango yobuhlanga.
Ukwandisa Umgangatho Ongaphaya Kohlanga
Imithetho yasungula imimiselo yokulwa nocalucalulo lobuhlanga eyayinika isikhokelo kwamanye amaqela aphantsi afuna ukuphathwa ngendlela efanayo phantsi komthetho. Iminyaka yee-1970 ukuya kuma-2010 yabonisa inkundla ezinika imigaqo elinganayo yokukhusela amabhinqa, abantu abaneziphene namalungu eLGBTQ+.
[[UMTLL:0] Ebekiweyo v. Unikezelo[[FTL]] (1971]: Ukuqhekeza kobunjani
Ngaphambi kowe-1971, iNkundla Ephakamileyo ayizange iwubethe umthetho ngenxa yocalulo lwesini. USally Reed wacell umthetho we-Idaho owawuthanda amadoda ngaphezu kwamabhinqa njengabalawuli bezindlu zezalamane ezifileyo. INkundla nganye yagqiba kwelokuba ikhethelo lobufanali lwaphule iSibonelelo se-14 seSikhuseli soMgaqo-mthetho ka-Claus.
IJaji enkulu uWarren Burger imbono ecacileyo echaza utshintsho olubalulekileyo. Inkundla yasebenzisa kuphela uhlolo olusengqiqweni, umgangatho osezantsi wokuhlola, kodwa yafumana umthetho kaIdaho ungenayo nayiphi na injongo esemthethweni. Esi sigqibo savula ucango ukuze kuqwalaselwe umlinganiselo onzima we-ethe-can. Craig v. Boren 2016], iNkuNkundlaluko yaseka "ukuhlolwa kwesondo" ukwenzela imigangatho esekelwe kwi-yo, ifuna "ubungqina obunempembelelo ngokulula."
Isihloko se-IX: Ukutshintsha Imfundo
IKhomishini yeSihloko seSiHlomelo semfundo sowe-1971 enamagama angama-37: "Akukho mntu eUnited States, ngenxa yesini, ongayi kubandakanyeka kwinxaxheba, ahlulwe iingenelo, okanye agwetyelwe nayiphi na inkqubo yemfundo okanye umsebenzi ofumana uncedo lwemali lweFomatili."
Impembelelo yomthetho yangqineka ingumahluko. Ngaphambi kweSihloko se-IX, amabhinqa aye abumba isithoba ekhulwini sabafundi bezamayeza kunye nesixhenxe ekhulwini sabafundi bomthetho. Ngo-2024, amabhinqa afumana uninzi lwezicaka zobudoda, idegrees, kunye namaqondo oogqirha. Inxaxheba eAthletis kumantombazana namabhinqa yadubula ukusuka kwimidlalo yasezikolweni zamabanga aphakamileyo engaphantsi kwama-30 000 ngonyaka ka-1971 ukuya kutsho ngaphezu kwezigidi ezi-3,4 ngo-2020.
ISihloko seNkundla ePhakamileyo somelezwa kakhulu kwi Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools (1992), iphethe ukuba abalawuli banokufumana ilahleko yemali ngenxa yokwaphula umthetho ngempazamo. Esi sigqibo senza izikolo zabeka ityala ngokwemali lokusingela ukukhathazwa ngokwesini, zidala izihlomelo ezinamandla zokuthobela iziko.
AmaMelika noMthetho wesiphene [[FLT: 1] (1990) kunye noMthetho Wayo Wesiphelo
Umbutho wamalungelo esiphene waphumelela okona kulungileyo kwemithetho yowiso-mthetho nge-Melika eneSivumelwano sokuKhubazeka, esasayinwa nguMongameli uGeorge H.W. Bush ngoJulayi 1990. I-ADA iyalwalela ucalucalulo kwimisebenzi, kwiindawo zokuhlala zikawonke-wonke, kwizithuthi, nakwizokunxibelelana ngekhompyutha.
INkundla ePhakamileyo yaqala yachaza iADA ngokungqongqo. Sutton v. United Airfs (1999), iNkundla yagqiba ukuba ukulinganisela amanyathelo afana neglasi kunye namayeza kungaqwalaselwa ukugqiba ukuba umntu unesiphene esifanelekileyo. IBhunga laphendula ngokubhekiselele kuMthetho we-ADA Dempletements ka-2009, owathi wakha wakha wakha wakha wawa i- SUT[FLT] ukusondela nokunyusa ingcaciso yesiphene.
Imithetho elandelayo iquka Olmstead v. L.C. [1999], eyafumanisa ukuba ukungafuneki ukusekwa kwabantu abaneziphene kumiselwe ucalucalulo. INkundla yabonisa ukuba kufuneka inike iinkonzo ezisekelwe kuluntu xa kufanelekile, ezifunekayo ukuphelisa ucwangciso lokuzinza. Le mithetho iqinisekisa umgaqo wokuba ithambeka lwalo naluphi na uhlobo, kuquka ikhubazeka, ingqubanisa amalungelo abantu.
LGBTQ+ Amalungelo ophawu lwelizwe
Inkqubela yeLGBTQ+ ukulingana kwajamelana neengxaki ezimandundu ngenxa yokuba iinkundla ngokwembali zala ukuvuma imbonakalo yesini njengendlela ekhuselekileyo efanelwe kuqwalaselwa ngokucokisekileyo. Utshintsho luye lwabakho ngokugxininisa kwinkululeko, ubuqu nesidima.
Romer v. Evans (1996): Eyokuqala yejoni LGBTQ+ Uloyiso
Abavoti baseColorado baphumeza isiHlamlo 2 ngowe-1992, esalela nawuphi na urhulumente okanye isenzo sikarhulumente wasekuhlaleni sokugqala ubufanasini okanye ubufanasini njengodidi olukhuselweyo. Umthetho wawungakuvumeli ukunyanzeliswa kwamasiko awo achasene nolwaphulo-mthetho. INkundla Ephakamileyo yasibetha isisombululo sesi-6-3, ngoJaji Anthony Kennedy wabhala ukuba umthetho ubonakala ungowento engenakuchatshazelwa yiyo kodwa ungathi uxhomekeke kwiklasi.
IRomer yaphawula okokuqala iNkundla ePhakamileyo igqibe ngesigqibo sokuxhasa iLGBTQ+ amalungelo phantsi koMphetho-mbongo we-14. INkundla yenza uhlolo olufanelekileyo kodwa yafumanisa ukuba uGawulayo 2 lwalungenayo nayiphi na injongo esemthethweni karhulumente. UJaji Antonin Scalia watyhola uninzi lwabathathi-nxaxheba kwimfazwe yesizwe, kodwa umthetho omiselwe ukuba imithetho ijolise kubantu abafanasini ngenxa yonyango oluchasiweyo wawufuna uthethelele olufanelekileyo.
Lawrence v. Texas (2003): Ukupheliswa kweSodomy
Ngo1986, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa umthetho we-sodoma ye-Georgia kwi- Bowers . Hardwick, ilawula ukuba umGaqo-siseko awukhange umisele "ilungelo elisisiseko lokubandakanyeka kubufanasini." Kwiminyaka eli-17 kamva, iNkundla yasilawula ngokucacileyo eso sigqibo. IHouston amapolisa angena kwindlu kaJohn Lawrence ephendula kwingxelo yobuxoki yophazamiso lwezixhobo aza ambamba kunye noTron Garner ngenxa yokwaphula umthetho ofanayo we-demom yaseTexas.
Uluvo lukaJaji Kennedy abaninzi lwaluthi umthetho waseTexas walwaphula ukhuseleko lwenkululeko. Inkundla yavuma ukuba abantu abadala banelungelo lokubandakanyeka kwihambo esondeleyo yabucala, ngaphandle kokungenelela kukarhulumente. Kennedy wabhala: "Izinyuko zazingachananga xa kugqitywe isigqibo, kwaye azichananga. Akufunekanga zihlale zikho imizekelo enyanzelisayo namhlanje.
Isigqibo [[NTLAMBO:0] sokwaphula umthetho sanciphisa imithetho yesodoma kumazwe ali-13 kwaye sanika isiseko somGaqo-siseko somgaqo-siseko wemeko yeLGBTQ + yamalungelo alandelayo. Ukugxininisa kwesigqibo kwisidima kunye nonxulumano olusenyongweni kwakufanekisela isigqibo sokulingana kweNkundla.
Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Umtshato Ukungalingani kohlanga ngokubanzi
Umbutho womtshato olinganayo waphumelela ngokukhawuleza emva komthetho we-. IMassachusetts yaba yimeko yokuqala ukubhalisa ngokusemthethweni umtshato onxulumene neentlobano zesini ngo-2004. Ngonyaka ka-2015, amaphondo angama-37 kunye neSithili saseColumbia savumela umtshato onxulumene neentlobano zesini, kodwa izibini kumazwe aseleyo ali-14 zaphelelwa kufikelelo.
UJim Obergefell watshata neqabane lakhe eligulela ukufa uJohn Arthur eMaryland, kodwa iOhio yala ukudwelisa iOberge Wafe njengeqabane elisindileyo kwisiqinisekiso sokufa kuka-Arthur. Eli tyala lahlanganisa amatyala amathandathu afanayo omtshato eMichigan, eKentucky, e-Ohio, naseTennessee. IJaji Kennedy yabhalela uninzi lwaba-5-4 ukuba uLawulo lweziko loMgunyaziso lweshumi elinesine lufuna ukuba kunikwe imvume kunye nokuqaphela imitshato efanayo.
Uluvo oluthi umtshato ulingana ngemigaqo emine: ukuzimela ngokwawo, intsingiselo ekhethekileyo yeemvakalelo yomtshato, ukukhusela intsapho, kunye nomtshato njengesiseko solungelelwano lwentlalo. Kennedy wagqiba kwelokuba "zicela isidima esilinganayo emehlweni omthetho. UmGaqo-siseko ubanika ilungelo elinjalo." Umthetho waguqula indlela esemthethweni yokuzimela izigidi zezibini ezitshatileyo ezingokwasemgangathweni kunye neentsapho zazo.
Ucelomngeni Lwamalungelo Abantu
Ukhuseleko olulinganayo luyaqhubeka luguquka njengoko iinkundla zijamelana nemibuzo emitsha ephathelele isenzo sokuvuma, ucalucalulo ngemisebenzi, amalungelo okuvota, kunye nokuchana kwemithetho-siseko. Izigqibo zakutshanje zeNkundla Ephakamileyo zibonisa ukwanda kokhuseleko nokukhuselwa kwezinye.
Fisher v. IYunivesithi yaseTexas (2016: Imida enika amacebiso esenzo
UAbigail Fisher, umfundi ongumlungu wakhanyela ukuvunywa kwiYunivesithi yaseTexas e-Austin, wacel ’ umngeni inkqubo yokuvuma kweyunivesithi ukuba abantu bathathe uhlanga njengelungu elinye phakathi kwabaninzi. INkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa inkqubo kwisigqibo esi-4-3, iqinisekisa ukuba umahluko wemfundo wakha umdla onyanzelisayo kurhulumente.
UJaji Kennedy, owayebonise ukungazi nokuba kutheni uluvo lwangaphambili lungaqiniseki ngokuvuma kohlanga, wabhalela uninzi lwenkundla ukuba lusebenzise uhlalutyo olungqongqo kodwa akufuneki ukuba iiyunivesithi zikhuphe lonke uhlobo olunokwenzeka-neutral. Umthetho wagcina isenzo sokuyekelela xa ubhinqisa umlinganiselo waso ovumelekileyo. Kwiminyaka esixhenxe kamva, iNkundla iphumelele ngaphaya kwegunya [[FLT: 0] Fisher ku- ku-[FLT] izidenti zikaFactorial Adgistrations v. Harvard [12]
Bostock v. Clayton County 2020): Isihloko VII sikhusela LGBTQ+ Abasebenzi
UGerald Bostock waphulukana nomsebenzi wakhe njengomququzeleli wentlalo-ntle yabantwana emva kokungenela umbutho woonozakuzaku bobufanasini. INkundla Ephakamileyo yaqinisa ityala lakhe ngokuthetha okufanayo kuDonald Zarda, umqeqeshi oqeshayo odubulayo emva kokukhankanya imbonakalo yakhe yesondo, kunye noAmpee Stephens, umngcwabi oqhutywe ekhaya emva kokuba ephume etransgender.
IJaji uNeil Gorfoth yabhalela abantu abathandathu-3 ukuba uSihloko se VII silela ucalucalulo lwesondo kufuneka sibhekiselele kucalulo olusekelwe kwimbonakalo yesini nakwisini sesini. Isigqibo sasebenzisa ingcaciso yokubhala: "Umqeshi odubula umntu ngenxa yokuba ngungqingili okanye utshisa umtshiso womntu ngenxa yeempawu okanye izenzo zakhe azinakuba akathandabuzi kumalungu esini esahlukileyo.
I- i-Bostock ukumisela okubonisa ukuba utoliko lwezibhalo lungavelisa ukhuseleko lwamalungelo abantu ababanzi, ummangaliso wabathathi-nxaxheba abaninzi kumacala omabini ezobupolitika.
Ukubonelela ngamalungelo kunye nokufikelela
UMthetho wamaLungelo we-1965, omnye weyona mithetho iphumelelayo yamalungelo abantu kwimbali yaseMelika, ufuna ulawulo olunembali nocalulo ukuze ufumane imvume karhulumente phambi kokutshintsha iinkqubo zokuvota. Isigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo sonyaka ka-2013 [iNkundla ePhakamileyo:0] seShelby County v. Umphathi warhoxa ifomu yokupapasha amalungelo abantu esetyenziswa ukugqiba ukuba zeziphi izithuba ezifuna umgangatho ophezulu.
IJaji enkulu uJohn Roberts wabhala ukuba olu mgaqo lwaphula umgaqo osisiseko wolawulo olulinganayo "ngomthetho osisiseko" phakathi koorhulumente kuba uxhomekeke kugcino-lwazi oluneminyaka engama-40 ubudala. Ulawulo lwamazwe akhululweyo ukuzalisekisa iinguqu zokuvota ngaphandle kolawulo lwamazwe, kunye nemithetho egutyungelwe ngaphambili yimfuno yangaphambili emiselwe ngoko nangoko imithetho eyafunyanwa ziinkokeli zikhupha ulawulo, ikhupha iincwadi zabavoti, kwaye iphumeza imithetho engqongqo yokuvota ebhaliweyo kunye nomahluko wezizwe ezikhoyo.
IKhomishini iye yasilela ngokuphindaphindiweyo ukugqithisa uMthetho we-John Lewis Voting Rights Advancement Act, oza kuhlaziya indlela yokugquma intetho nokubuyisela ukhuseleko lwangaphambili. Iziphumo ze-' Shelby County zibonisa ukuba kwanamalungelo abalaseleyo asekuhlaleni ahlala esengozini ekutshintsheni iinkcazelo zomthetho kunye ne-projekthi.
Imisebenzi yesakhelo soMthetho exhasa ukulingana
While court decisions interpret constitutional and statutory protections, legislation establishes the foundational architecture of civil rights enforcement. The most consequential civil rights statutes created federal enforcement mechanisms and private rights of action that individuals can use to vindicate their rights.
UMthetho waMalungelo oLuntu ka-1964 umi njengomthetho obanzi wamalungelo abantu. Isihloko Ndakuvala ukubhaliswa komvotisi womthetho-mthetho. Isihloko II salwalela ucalucalulo kwizindlu zikawonke-wonke. Isihloko III esigunyazisiweyo sagunyazisa ukukhutshelwa kwezakhiwo zikarhulumente. Isihloko ISihloko seSi-VI safuna ukuba isikolo siphelelwe ligunyazwe. Isihloko VII saluthintela ucalucalucalucalulo lwemisebenzi olusekelwe kuhlanga, umbala, unqulo, okanye kwimvelaphi yesizwe.
ISihloko se-VII sasungula iKhomishoni eLinganisa i-Aumelt Opportunity Commission ukuba iphande iingxelo zocalucalulo nokunyanzeliswa kokuthotyelwa kwemithetho. I-EEOC yaqulunqa izityholo ezingaphezu kwama-61 000 ngonyaka wama-2023 kuphela, ngokuziphindezela, ngokuhlanga, nangokukhubazeka kwezona ziko ziqhelekileyo zeziko. Imigudu yokunyanzelisa imicimbi yalo mbutho, idibaniselwane nokumangalelwa ngasese, iye yafumana amawaka ezigidi zeerandi zamaxhoba ocalucalulo.
I-Fair Howard Act ka-1968, yadluliselwa emva kokubulawa kukaMartin Luther King Jr., ithintela ukuhlaliswa kwezindlu ngokusekelwe kucalulo olusekelwe kuhlanga, ibala, unqulo, isini, imvelaphi yesizwe, isikhundla sobufazi, okanye ukukhubazeka. ISebe le House kunye noPhuhliso loMkhosi we-Urban liphengulula izikhalazo kwaye linyanzelise ukunyanzeliswa, nangona ukuqeshwa kwezindlu njengenye yezona zingxaki zamalungelo abantu ezingalawulekiyo.
Ezi zicwangciso zowiso-mthetho zinika isiseko somthetho sokubekwa kwamalungelo abantu abaninzi akhoyo. Xa iNkqutyana imisela ukhuseleko olutsha okanye ilungisa imithetho ekhoyo, idala iindlela ezintsha zokuchaza nokunyanzelisa imigaqo yokulingana.
Imeko Yamazwe Ngamazwe Nokuqhubeka Kwemilo
Amava amalungelo abantu baseMerika akhona kwimibutho yomhlaba wonke ejongena nokulingana. Amalungelo abantu ehlabathi lonke, kuquka iSindululo Somhlaba Wonke Samalungelo Abantu kunye noMvumelwano Wezizwe Ngezizwe Ngamalungelo Abemi Namazwe, imigaqo ecacileyo eyaphembelela ukulawulwa kwemithetho yamakhaya. Ngamanye amaxesha abagwebi baseMerika babhekisela kumthetho wezizwe ngezizwe ekuchazeni ukukhuselwa komgaqo-siseko, nangona oku kusaqhubeka kuphikisana.
Umgaqo-siseko woMzantsi Afrika emva kokwahlula imimandla, owamkelwa ngo-1996, ngokucacileyo uquka amalungelo ezoqoqosho nawentlalo kunye namalungelo angokwesithethe nangokwezobupolitika. Inkundla yomGaqo-siseko yaseMzantsi Afrika iye yanyanzelisa amalungelo endlu, ezonyango, kunye nemfundo eziye iinkundla zaseMerika zala ukuzigqala njengezejaji. Le mbono yothelekiso icebisa ukuba amalungelo abantu baseMerika, ngelinye ixesha elinempembelelo emhlabeni wonke, imela umzekelo omnye phakathi kwabaninzi.
Imingeni yamalungelo abantu iquka ukusingatha ucalucalulo lwe-algoriths kwinkqubo yokungalingani, ukukhusela amalungelo okuvota phakathi komgangatho wobundlobongela worhulumente onobundlobongela, ukuqinisekisa ukufikelela okulinganayo ekunyamekeleni ukuzala emva [[FLT: 0]].
Indaleko yokulingana asiyonto iqhubekeka ngokulandelelana kodwa lukhuphiswano oluqhubekayo phakathi kwemibono ekhuphisanayo yedemokhrasi yaseMerika. Isizukulwana ngasinye sijongana nemibuzo emitsha malunga noko kufunekayo ukulingana nendlela engcono yokukufikelela ngayo. Amatyala aphawulayo awabumba amalungelo abantu anika umzekelo kunye nempembelelo, kodwa ekugqibeleni afuna ukuba siqonde ukulingana njengomsebenzi ongagqitywanga ofuna ingqalelo eqhubekayo, i-advocacy, kunye nesenzo.