Iinkundla zisebenza njengabameli abapheleleyo bomGaqo-siseko, zisebenzisa amandla okuchaza amalungiselelo awo nokuwisa imithetho okanye izenzo zikarhulumente ezichasene nemiyalelo yawo. Le ndima ingundoqo ekulondolozeni umthetho nasekukhuseleni amalungelo omntu ngamnye aqinisekisiweyo ngumGaqo-siseko. Ngaphandle kwejaji ezimeleyo, ulungelelwaniso oluthe lwaqhutywa ngenyameko lwamandla akwiziqinisekiso zokusungula iprojekthi lungaba yinkcaso encinane kunentsingiselo engokwengcamango.

Indima Ebalulekileyo Yezabelo Kurhulumente WaseMerika

Ijudicary yenye yamasebe amathathu alinganayo karhulumente karhulumente karhulumente karhulumente, ecaleni kweBhunga kunye noMongameli. Umsebenzi wayo ophambili asikokwenza umthetho okanye ukuwunyanzelisa, kodwa kukuwuchaza ngokuchaza (ukusebenzisa umGaqo-siseko kunye nemimiselo kwiimeko nganye ezayo phambi kwawo. Eli gunya lokucacisa lidlulela ngaphaya kokufunda nje okubhaliweyo; lifuna abagwebi ukugqiba intsingiselo nomgangatho wamalungelo omgaqo-siseko kwiimeko ezisoloko zihambelana.

Abagwebi kufuneka bagqibe amatyala neempikiswano ngokungakhethi buso, ngaphandle koloyiko lokuziphindezela kwezobupolitika okanye iimbono ezithandwayo. Oku kungakhethi buso kungunobangela wokuthenjwa kwabantu ezinkundleni. Indima yejaji njengomxhasi wobundilele ivumela ukuba icombulule iimpikiswano phakathi kwabantu ngabanye, phakathi korhulumente norhulumente, naphakathi kwamasebe awahlukeneyo karhulumente. Ngaphezu koko, iinkundla zephondo zinegunya lokuphulaphula amatyala aqukuqela phantsi komGaqo-siseko, imithetho, kunye nezivumelwano ze-United States, zizenza zibe yindawo yokuqala yokulwa kwempikiswano yemithetho.

Ukucaciswa komGaqo-siseko neendlela zawo

Abagwebi basebenzisa iindlela ezininzi xa betolika umGaqo-siseko. ijongene kakhulu nentsingiselo ecacileyo yamagama asetyenzisiweyo ifuna ukuqonda umbhalo njengoko wawuqondwa ngexesha lolwakhiwo. ichaza ukuba intsingiselo yeMigaqo-siseko ivela ngeenguqu ezinkulu. Ezi ntandabulumko ezichaza ngqo indlela iinkundla ezigqiba ngayo ngokobugqeba ngamanye amalungelo, amandla ombuso, kunye negunya.

Inkqubo yeepeyinti nolungelelwano

UmGaqo-siseko wadala ngabom inkqubo yokwahlula amagunya, unika imisebenzi eyahlukileyo kwimithetho, isebe elilawulayo, kunye namasebe eejaji. Kodwa ukwahlukana kukodwa akwanele; isebe ngalinye kufuneka libe nezixhobo zokuhlola ezinye. Uvavanyo oluphambili lwejaji ngamandla okuvakalisa imithetho edluliswe yiBhunga okanye izenzo ezithatyathwe nguMongameli. Eli gunya alichazwanga ngokucacileyo kumbhalo womGaqo-siseko.=="Indlu nganye kufuneka imiselwe yiNkundla ePhakamileyo kwityala lomqondiso [.

Xa inkundla ifumana umthetho karhulumente okanye karhulumente ungekho semthethweni, upheliswa ngokunempumelelo. Eli gunya alipheleli; ijaji ixhomekeke kwisebe eliphetheyo ukunyanzelisa imithetho yalo kunye neBhunga ukumisela igunya layo. Kodwa kwisangqa sayo, ijudicary inegama lokugqibela kwintsingiselo yomgaqo-siseko. Njengoko iNkundla ePhakamileyo ichazwe ngokudumileyo kwi- Cooper v. Aaron [1958], “ijaji yesizwe iphezulu ekudluliseleni umthetho womGawula.”

Indlela Amasebe Alawulayo Nasemthethweni Azihlolisisa Ngayo Iinkundla

Ngoxa iinkundla zihlola amanye amasebe, zikwayahlolwa. UMongameli umisela abagwebi besizwe (ngokuqinisekiswa kweNdlu yeeNtlanganiso), kwaye iNgqungquthela iyakwazi ukukhupha abagwebi ngenxa “yolwaphulo-mthetho oluphezulu kunye nabasebenzi abangalunganga.” IBhunga likwanamandla okutshintsha inani lamatyala kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo nokucebisa ulungiso lomgaqo-siseko olunokuphelisa iinkcazelo zomthetho. Ezi zinto ziqinisekisa ukuba akukho sebe likhula linamandla kakhulu.

Impinda yezeejaji: ICherlinestone yoMgaqo-siseko

Uhlolo lwezeejaji sesona sixhobo sinamandla kwizixhobo zezakhono. Kuvumela iinkundla ukuba zitshitshise imithetho, imiyalelo yesebe eliphetheyo, kunye nezenzo zikarhulumente ezichasene nomGaqo-siseko. Amandla asetyenziswa kuyo yonke imiba yejaji yequmrhu lesizwe, kodwa izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo kwimibuzo yomgaqo-siseko zibophelelekile kuzo zonke ezinye iinkundla.

Inkundla ePhakamileyo iye yasebenzisa uhlolo lokugweba ukubumba phantse zonke iinkalo zobomi baseMelika. Umzekelo, Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954), iNkundla yasebenzisa nganye ukuma ngelithi ucalulo lobuhlanga kwizikolo zikawonke wonke lwaphula umthetho iSikhuseli soMmiselo we-14. Esi sigqibo sayibhukuqa imfundiso yangaphambili “ehlukeneyo kodwa elinganayo” esuka Pnecy v. Ferguson [186]) [186])) yaza yamisela isigaba sokukhusela amalungelo abantu.

Amanye amatyala abalulekileyo aquka Roe v. [1973], eyamkela ilungelo lomgaqo-siseko lokuqhomfa phantsi kwe-"Claus Doctory; Gideon v. Wainwright [1963], eqinisekisa ilungelo lokucebisa abamangalelwa abagwebi; kunye CITNS CON [[FLT:][20:0]), eyandisa ukhuseleko lokuqala kwingeniso yezopolitiki. Zonke zezi zigqibo zibonisa ukuhlolwa okunzulu komthetho kumalungelo neenkqubo zikawonke wonke.

Amatyala empinda yophawu lwejaji

  • Marbury v. Madison (1803) – sise sise somgaqo wokuhlola, sivakalisa umthetho wesizwe ongamiselwanga okwesihlandlo sokuqala.
  • red Scott v. Sandford (1857) – ngokudumekileyo ukholelwa ukuba amaMelika aseAfrika ayengengobemi; kamva apheliswa yiMiphetho-mda yeshumi elinesithathu neyeshumi elinesine.
  • Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954) – ibhengeze ukwahlukana kobuhlanga kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke ngaphandle komthetho, iphela “ngokwahlukeneyo kodwa kulingana.”
  • [[NTL:0] Roe v. Wade (1973) – yaqonda ilungelo lomGaqo-siseko webhinqa lokukhetha ukuqhomfa phantsi kwelungelo lokuba wedwa.
  • United States v. Nixon (1974) – Iqinisekisa ukuba akukho mntu, hayi uMongameli, ungaphezulu komthetho ngokuyalela ukhutshwa kweekhasethi zeWatergate.

Ukukhusela Amalungelo Abantu Ngamnye Ngeenkundla

Ngaphandle kokuhlola amanye amasebe, iinkundla zingumthombo oyintloko womntu ngamnye othethelela amalungelo akhe angokomGaqo-siseko. IBhili yamaLungelo ikhusela inkululeko enjengentetho, unqulo, indibano, ilungelo lokuphatha iingalo, nokukhusela ukuphandwa nokuxhuzula okungekho ngqiqweni. UMthetho wokuGawula kweshumi elinesine ukhusela uninzi lwale migaqo nxamnye norhulumente kunye noorhulumente basekuhlaleni ngemfundiso yokubandakanya.

Abantu abakholelwa ukuba amalungelo abo aphulwe bayakwazi ukubeka ityala kwinkundla karhulumente phantsi kwemimiselo enjenge 42 U.S. . . . . ., evumela abemi ukuba bamangalelwe ngurhulumente nakumagosa asekuhlaleni ngenxa yokwaphulwa komgaqo-siseko. Lo mjikelo sisixhobo esinamandla sokubeka abadlali kuxanduva. Umzekelo, ukuba amapolisa aqhuba uphengululo olungekho mthethweni okanye asebenzise amandla agqithisileyo, umntu ochaphazelekayo angazisa inyathelo lokufuna ilahleko kunye noncedo lobugcisa.

Inkululeko Yokuthetha Nohlaziyo Lokuqala

Iinkundla ziye zavelisa iqumrhu elikhulu lamatyala elichaza iSinyusi Sokuqala. Ukusuka ekukhuseleni iflegi (i-Texas v. Johnson, 1989) ekuthinteleni imimiselo yezemali (iBhackley v. Valeo, 1976), ijaji ilungelelanise intetho ekhululekileyo nxamnye neenjongo zorhulumente ezikhuphisanayo. INkundla ePhakamileyo ibambelele ekubekeni imiqathango esekelwe ekuthetheni ngokungekho mthethweni, ngoxa ingeyomiqathango yemithetho yezemali ngexesha, indawo, nendlela yokulawula. Ezi mfundiso zisembindini wokugcina intetho yedemokhrasi iqinile.

Inkqubela efanelekileyo nokhuseleko olulinganayo

IziHlanziso zesihlanu nezeshumi elinesine ziqinisekisa ukuba akukho mntu uza kuhluthwa “ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho.” Iinkundla ziye zachaza inkqubo efanelekileyo yokuquka zombini ukhuseleko lweprocedenti (ithuba lokuviwa) kunye nezokhuselo ezincinci (ezifana nelungelo lomzimba ozimeleyo). Ukhuseleko olulinganayo lufuna ukuba urhulumente aphathe abantu ngokufanayo, kwaye iinkundla zisebenzisa uphando oluphezulu kwimithetho esekelwe kuhlanga, kwisini okanye kumalungelo asisiseko.

Ukufumana Okusesikweni: Ukwenza Iinkundla Zifumaneke Kubo Bonke

Ukukhusela amalungelo ngokunempumelelo, kufuneka kufikeleleke. Ngelishwa, ixabiso lemali yokuhlawula ityala, iindleko zenkundla, amangqina , iingcali, ngokuqhelekileyo kubekwa ubulungisa ngaphaya kokufikelela kwezahlulo eziphantsi neziphakathi kwama-Merika. UMthetho weSithandathu wokuHlaziya uqinisekisa ukuba icebiso likwimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho, kodwa abaxhasi-mthetho abanalo ilungelo elinjalo. Oku kuye kwakhokelela ekukhuleni “kwemiqobo,” apho abantu abaninzi kufuneka bazimela (kuse) kwiimeko ezintlukwano zomthetho ezintsonkothileyo.

Iintshukumo ezahlukeneyo zijolise kwiblorho ephakathi:

  • [[NTLA:0] Intlangano yoncedo lwezemali – iinkampani zomthetho ezingafumani ngeniso ezinika abantu abahlwempuzekileyo imelo elikhululekileyo okanye eliphantsi. Ziphatha amatyala abandakanya indlu, umthetho wentsapho, ukhuseleko lwabathengi, neengenelo zikawonke-wonke.
  • Project Programs Bono-iinkampani ezininzi zomthetho kunye neembutho zebhari zikhuthaza amagqwetha ukuba anikele ngexesha lawo. IAmerican Bar Association’s Pro Bono Week ingomnye wemigudu yokwandisa iinkonzo zokuzithandela.
  • [[UMTLL:0] Iziko loncedo lobuxhakaxhaka kunye nezibonelelo ze-Online – iiNkundla ezinika iifomu, iividiyo, kunye nokhokelo lwezibonelelo ezizimeleyo. Iiwebhsayithi zezomthetho zikarhulumente zisoloko zineendawo zokumisa izinto ezilula ezifana notshintsho lwamagama okanye uqhawulo-mtshato olungavavanywanga.

Phezu kwayo nje le migudu, imiqobo ephawulekayo isaseleyo. Iinkonzo zasekuhlaleni zifumana inkxaso elinganiselweyo karhulumente, kwaye umsebenzi we-prono awunakuyithabathela indawo ngokupheleleyo inkqubo yoncedo olunamandla olusemthethweni. Abameli bayaqhubeka benyanzela ilungelo elisemthethweni lokucebisa kwiimeko ezibalulekileyo zasekuhlaleni, njengokugxothwa okanye ukukhuselwa kwabantwana kwimicimbi esisiseko apho iimfuno ezisisiseko zisengozini.

Impembelelo Efikelela Kude Yezigqibo Zenkundla Ephakamileyo

INkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. yeyona nkundla iphakamileyo kwelo lizwe, yaye izigqibo zayo zibubumba ngokunzulu ubomi baseMerika. Ngenxa yokuba iNkundla ikhetha kuphela amatyala angama-70-880 ngonyaka kwizicelo ezingaphezu kwama-7 000, isigqibo ngasinye sinobunzima obukhulu. Ukuchazwa kweNkundla ngomGaqo-siseko kuba ngumzekelo ongqongqo kuzo zonke iinkundla ezisezantsi.

Izigqibo zomnyaka wakutshanje zibonisa le mpembelelo. "Obergefell v. Hodges (2015), iNkundla yathi izibini ezingokwasemgaqweni zinelungelo elifanayo lokutshata, inika ukhuseleko olulinganayo kwi LGBTQ+ ulwalamano lwelizwe lonke. Ifekta yesizwe ye-Intelligence v. Sebelius[[FLT:]] (2020:2), iNkundla ixhasa igunya lomntu ngamnye loMphathi we-Afford Caciso loMphathi weNdlela wokuqhuba i-okelela ityala njengesenzo esisemthethweni seNkuqwalaselwa kwenkundla esezantsi, ukukhunjulwa kwemeko yezomthetho. [[FLT]]

INkundla ikwathetha ngemiba enqumlayo efana ne-eddeg. Iqonga lokukhusela ukhuseleko lwezibonelelo zamanani. [United States (2017]), iNkundla yagqiba ukuba urhulumente usoloko efuna isiqinisekiso sokufumana ugcino-lwazi lweseli embalini, eqonda ukuba uphando lwamanani lukhusela uGawulayo lwesine ngeendlela ezintsha. Izigqibo ezinjalo zigcina umGaqo-siseko ufanelekile kwisizukulwana sangoku.

Indlela Yokuvumelana Nezigwebo Zenkundla Ephakamileyo

Abami bangafumana iimbono ezipheleleyo neempikiswano zomlomo nge-website esemthethweni yeNkundla [i-FLT:0].gov. Izibonelelo ezifana -Oyez[ zinikezela ngoshicilelo lwesandi kunye nentsonkothileyo yesiNgesi. Iisiseko somthetho esinjenge- Cornell Information yolwazi ye-Lect

Ikamva Lendlu Yoonozakuzaku Kuluntu Olutshintshayo

Njengoko ubugcisa, inani labemi, kunye nezithethe zentlalo ziguquka, ijaji kufuneka ilungelelanise nemibuzo emitsha yomgaqo-siseko. Iimpikiswano eziselundini ziquka ubukrelekrele obungeyoyamvelo kunye nenkqubo efunekayo, amalungelo okuzimela ngasese ngexesha lamanani, umgangatho wamandla aphezulu kwimicimbi yokhuseleko lwesizwe, nokudibana kwenkululeko yokuthetha kunye nomgangatho ophezulu wezentlalo-ntle. IiNkundla ziyakufuna ukusebenzisa ulwimi oludala lwesiseko kwiimeko abasunguli abangenakuze bazicinge.

Inkqubo yokuchophela amatyala ihlala iphikisana ngokwezobupolitika, kunye nokuqinisekisa iimfazwe zeNdlu yeeNtlanganiso ezikhulayo. Okwangoku, ukuthembana kwabantu ezinkundleni kuye kwatshintsha. Abanye abajongi bexhalabisa ukuba ukubonakala kobuhlanga kungenza ijaji ingasebenzi ngokusemthethweni. Ukugcina ukungabi namkhethe (-/nembono yokungakhethi buso) kubalulekile ukuze iinkundla ziqhubeke zisebenza njengabachasi-mthetho.

Indima Yabemi Ekuxhaseni Icuba Elinempumelelo

Abemi abangoondaba abangenzi nto kwinkqubo yomgaqo-siseko. Abantu abathembiseneyo bomeleza isigwebo ngokufuna ukuba abantu bafumane ilungelo lokucholachola, babe nenxaxheba kwimfundo yezentlalo, kwaye bahlonele inkululeko engokweenkundla. Ukuqonda indlela iinkundla ezisebenza ngayo.

Ukusebenza kunyulo lwejaji yetyala (apho kuyimfuneko), ukuqhagamshelana nabameli malunga nezithuba zomthetho, nokuxhasa uncedo olusemthethweni ziindlela ezicacileyo zokuphembelela inkqubo. Abemi abanolwazi olungcono, okukhona benokuluphepha ngokunempumelelo ekuphanjweni lisebe. Njengoko iNkundla ePhakamileyo iphawulwe Denge v. Oregon [1937]], “ukubaluleka okukhulu kokukhusela uluntu ekuphembeleni ekubhukuqeni kwemishoshoshosho ngenkani nangogonyamelo, imfuneko engakumbi yokuba kugcinwe amalungelo omgaqo omgaqo omgaqo wentetho ekhululekileyo, umatshini kunye nendibano ukuze kugcinwe ithuba lokugcina ithuba lokuthetha ngokukhululekile."

Isiphelo

Iinkundla zimi njengesixhobo sokulawula urhulumente womgaqo-siseko. Ngohlalutyo lwezomthetho, zihlola amandla esebe eliphetheyo nelowiso-mthetho. Ngetyala ngalinye, zikhusela amalungelo abantu asuka kwinkululeko yokuthetha ukuya kwinkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho. Ngokufikelela kumanyathelo okusesikweni, zizabalazela ukuqinisekisa ukuba ezi migaqo azigcinelwanga izityebi. Yaye ngezigqibo zenkcazo, zikhokela uhlanga ngamaxesha okuguquka okunzulu kwentlalo.

Ukuzigcina le ndima kufuna ukuba uhlale uphaphile. Ekugqibeleni igunya lejaji lixhomekeke kubuchule balo bokulawula intlonelo ngezigqibo eziqikelelwayo, ezinemigaqo. Xa abemi beqonda baze baxhase umsebenzi wenkundla womgaqo-siseko, yonke inkqubo yokuhlola nokulinganisela ngokwenjongo yayo. UmGaqo-siseko awululo uxwebhu oluzinqumlayo.