Ukwazisa: Iintsika Ezidityanisiweyo Zenkcazelo Yoqobo

Ingcaciso yomgaqo-siseko yamandulo ixhomekeke kwiziseko ezibini ezixhomekeke kwisiseko esixhomekeke kwisiseko: umbhalo womGaqo-siseko ngokwawo kunye nomo-mo wembali apho wabhalelwa khona kwaye wagunyaziswa. Abaxhasi baphikisa ukuba olu gxininiso lubini lunika uzinzo, ukuxelwa kwangaphambili, kunye nokunyaniseka kumthetho. Oku kubhaliweyo kunikeza amagama anegunya alinganisela ingqiqo esesikweni, ngoxa imbali icacisa intsingiselo yaloo mazwi ngexesha awamkelwa ngalo. Ngabunye, umbhalo nembali zibumba inkqubo efuna ukuthintela abagwebi ekubekeni imigaqo yabo yobuqu phantsi komgaqo-siseko.

Le ndlela ifumene igalelo elibalulekileyo kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje, ingakumbi phakathi kwabezomthetho abalaseleyo kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo. IJaji uAntonin Scalia, oyena mmeli uphambili wale mihla, wanyanzelisa ukuba uBhosalda yayingeyongcamango yezobupolitika kodwa yayiyindlela yobundilele yokutolika. Ilandela lakhe uNeil Gorfow, ngokufanayo uthethelela ubufunda ngokusondeleyo ububhalwe phantsi kolwimi lwe-statotory kunye nolwimi lwemithetho-grafel-. Ngokunjalo, uMahluleli-Clarence Thomas uye wathembela ekuziqheliseni ngokwembali ukusetyenziswa kwentsingiselo yantlandlolo enjengenkqubo kaClasko Claus noMbethisombululo wesibini. Umthetho wesipalapalapala.[FLDifle & Pol Association]

Eli nqaku lihlolisisa indlela okubhaliweyo nembali esebenza ngayo kwiimeko zomGaqo-siseko wamandulo, lihlolisisa izigqibo eziphawulekayo ezibunjwe yiloo ndlela yokusebenza kwenzululwazi, lize lixubushe nezingxengxezo eziphambili ezichasene nale ndlela yokucacisa.

Isiseko Sobuseki

Ukwenziwa kolwazi lwangaphambili asiyongcamango yohlobo olunye. Amasebe aliqela ahlukeneyo aye aguquka, ngalinye ligxininisa ngokwahlukileyo kwimbali ebhaliweyo. Ukuqonda ezi mpawu zibalulekile ekuboneni indlela iinkundla eziyisebenzisa ngayo le ndlela.

Intsingiselo kawonke-wonke yantlandlolo

Uhlobo lokuqala lobufundisi obujoliswe kwiinjongo zomxholo weFramers +-ah James Madison, uAlexander Hamilton, okanye abanye abaqhubi bedipo babekholelwa ngokobuqu kwilungiselelo elithethwa ngu. Le “njongo yokuqala” ixhaswe ngu-Attorney General Edwin Meese ngoo 1980, yafuna ukubuyisa kwakhona iimfuno zababhali bomGaqo-siseko. Abahlalutyi bakhawuleza bachaza ubunzima: Abalawuli beFrames abazange bavumelane, amalungiselelo amaninzi aye anikezela, kwaye injongo yokuqonda kwimibhalo yamacandelo isoloko ikhohlakele.

Ngeminyaka yee-1990, abaphengululi abaninzi nabagwebi abaguqulelwe kwintsingiselo kawonke-wonke. Ngaphantsi kwale ngcamango, uphando olufanelekileyo asikokujongwa kwamagama ngokufihlakeleyo kodwa indlela umfundi onengqondo, onolwazi anokuba wakuqonda ngayo oku kubhaliweyo ngexesha lokudityaniswa. Oku kwayiphepha iingxaki ezininzi ze-epistemmentism. Kwaye kwadityaniswa ukuqulunqwa kobukho bento yokwenziwa kwento ngenkqu. Kwaye kwadityaniswa ukuguqulelwa kombhalo kunye nendlela yokubhala, okujongwa kwentsingiselo eqhelekileyo yamagama njengoko kuqondwa sisithethi esiqhelekileyo solwimi. Umthetho Scalia ulu luluvo lwawo u-Difility of Columbia v. [Flct:1] (2001) [88) indlela yokwenziwa komthetho-tirikshina: uvavanyo, iidiadiotelts, kunye nomgaqo-siseko somthetho-siseko sangaphambili sokumisela ukubamba i-ithanganto kwi-'injini ye-'injini.

Ukubhalwa kombhalo njengesiseko sezixhobo

Umbhalo uxhomekeke kumbhalo obhaliweyo, kodwa awufani. Abagwebi abachaza izinto zakudala bagxininisa kwintsingiselo ecacileyo yombhalo, ngokufuthi besusa imithombo ebhaliweyo engakumbi njengembali yowiso-mthetho. Kwimeko zomgaqo-siseko, ukuguqulela ngokwezibhalo kufuna ukuba umtoliki aqale aze aphele ngamazwi omGaqo-siseko. Kuphela xa umbhalo udityaniswa ngokucacileyo. Kungoko, izigqibo ezininzi zobunzululwazi, umbhalo unika intentelekiso yokuqala nenamandla kakhulu. Umzekelo, uMthetho wokuqala uchaza ukuba akukho mithetho elungelelanisiweyo iya kwenza ukuba iBhunga loMbutho lenze... ingabi namthetho obeka inkululeko yokuthetha.” Umbhalo ufunda loo mazwi njengomyalelo opheleleyo kwimithetho ethintelayo, ethetha kuphela (ukukhuthaza okungaqhelekanga okanye ukukhuthaza). Umbhalo uthetha okungenayo kwimbali; intsingiselo yembali.

IJaji Hugo Black, phakathi kuma-520th centurry, yayingoyena wandulelayo kwimibhalo yale mihla. Wadume ngokubamba ikopi yomGaqo-siseko epokothweni yakhe kwaye waphikisa ngelithi amazwi oMgaqo-siseko Wokuqala wawuthetha kanye oko babekuthethile: akukho mthetho. Nangona i-absolutism ayizange yamkelwe yiNkundla, ukugxininisa kwakhe ekuthembekeni kwemibhalo kwaphenjelelwa kwiingcali zamva.

Indima Yembali Ebangela Ukurhwaphiliza

Imbali idlala indima eyahlukileyo kwimvelaphi yoqobo ngaphaya kokucacisa nje okucacileyo okubhaliweyo. Iingxoxo zokudityaniswa kwentsingiselo kawonke-wonke, iManyano yoluHlu, iAntintlaferalist, kunye neendibano zephondo lamandulo konke kucacisa indlela umGaqo-siseko owanikelwa ngayo kubantu baseMelika kunye noko babezigqala njengowamkelayo. Abaquluneli bezi mithombo bakujonga njengobungqina bentsingiselo kawonke-wonke-wonke /hhayi njengemiyalelo ebambekayo, kodwa njengemiqondiso enamandla yokuqonda okukhoyo. Umzekelo, [Choolm v. Georgia [17] [17]], iNkuNkumbuso oPhakamileyo uthelekelelo oluthiweyo luthiwe enkusenkuthethwa kwinkundla yorhulumente. Oko kwathiwayo ngoko kwathiwa, kodwa njengomo lwembali yeNkqululo oluthi yeGequluendo oluthi oluGenegane.

Indima Yombhalo Kwiimeko Zamandulo

Umbhalo woMgaqo-siseko yindawo yokuqala yohlalutyo ngalunye loqobo. Ngenxa yokuba olu xwebhu lufutshane kwaye ludla ngokubakho, ingqwalaselo ijolise kwindibano yolwimi zoMsunguli wexesha. Ngaloo ndlela abagwebi benkcubeko baxhomekeke kakhulu kwi 18th 93 kunye ne 19th extenturiry sichazi-magama (umz., iSamuel Johnson’s, i-Moily Webster’s), imibhalo ebhaliweyo ngexesha elinye, kunye nesakhiwo somgaqo-ntetho.

Intsingiselo Ecacileyo Nohlaziyo Lwesibini

I-dicuteography of Columbia v. Helter, iNkundla yajamelana nocelomngeni kwiWashington, D.C. ukuvalwa komlotha wesandla. Uluvo lukaMgwebi uScalia lwaqala ngombhalo othi: “I-Militia elungelelene kakuhle, eyimfuneko kukhuseleko lwezwe elikhululekileyo, ilungelo labantu lokugcina nokuphatha izixhobo, alizukuphikiswa. Umbuzo ongundoqo wawungukuba ngaba igalelo lwangaphambili (“A elungelelene kakuhle Militia ...) ibeke i-galelo (ilungelo labantu ...).). UScilia wakhuba intetho ethi “ithwaneezixhobo” njengentsingiselo yomkhosi kunye neyodwa, iquluqukelele intelelo yomntu ngamnye kwimipulllmes 1791.[3]

Umbhalo noMphetho Wokuqala: “Ukutshatyalaliswa”

Kwimeko ezikhululekileyo, iingcali zoqobo zidla ngokugxininisa isenzi esithi “ibridge.” UHlaliso Lokuqala aluthi iCongress ayizukuyichaza intetho”; ithi iCongress ayizukuyi “i-abridge” (intetho encinci okanye enciphileyo). Lo khetho lwamagama lubonisa ukuba ulawulo luvumelekile, kodwa naluphi na ukunciphisa inkululeko yokuthetha alwamkelekanga. Abalandeli besithethe ngoko bajonge kwimbali ukuze bafumanise oko abaFramers bekuqonde njenge “nkululeko yokuthetha” ngo1791,59, ingxubuzo ezidla ngokukhokelela kumthetho oqhelekileyo wamaNgesi, uqheliselo, kunye nemithetho yokuqala yomthetho. Umzekelo, uMthetho weSigqi, owenziwe ngoolwaphulo-mthetho, kwagxekwa kakhulu ngexesha le ngxaki, kwana nembono embali ephambili njengobungqina obuthi bukhusele intlalo oluqhelekileyo, nokuba ngaba umthetho womthetho umlomo ukhuselweyo kuphela.

Umbhalo noMthetho Ohlaziyiweyo Osibhozo: “Ingqumbo Nendlela Engaqhelekanga”

ISinyuso se-Eleth Simplified salela “isohlwayo esingaqhelekanga.” Abaxhasi boqobo babuza oko kwakuthethwa ngu-“bugqwirha kunye nengaqhelekanga” ngo-1791. IJaji Scalia yaphikisa ukuba ibinzana elibhekiselwa kwisohlwayo sobabini esikhohlakeleyo (ngemilinganiselo yamaxesha angoku) kunye nengaqhelekanga (engasetyenziswayo). Wadume ngokuchasayo kwi Atkins v. Virginia [2001], apho iNkukhongosithelela khona iso somgwebo wokufa kwabo bakhubazekile ngokwengqondo. Scilia waphikisa ukuba ngenxa yokuba abaninzi bathetha ukuba kwinkulungwane ye-19 ebulewe abaphuli mthetho abanjalo, isohlwayo yayingeyonto engaqhelekanga. Umbhalo, akagxininisi ncam yalo, kodwa umthetho wesizwe, kodwa awubonisi inkqubo yokugweba.

Indima Yembali Kwiimeko Zamandulo

Xa umbhalo udida okanye uthe shwaka-the jikelele, kwaye uninzi lomGaqo-siseko lubekwe ngamagama abanzi, ``imposiso' iba sisixhobo esingundoqo sokucombulula intsingiselo. Abagwebi benkcubeko bahlolisisa imisebenzi yembali, ingakumbi leyo yexesha eliphakathi kweratification, njengezikhokelo ezigunyazisiweyo.

Isithethe sembali kunye noMphetho-mda wesibini: Bruen

Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo yowama-2022 [220] seNkundla ePhakamileyo yeNew York uRifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen yaphakamisa imbali ibe nendima ephambili kwiNtlalo yeSibini yoHlaziyo, iJaji yeMimiselo yeMida. Ibhala ngoninzi, uThomas uBangas wabambelela kwisigqibo sokuba umthetho wemipu ukuba umgaqo wesi siseko somthetho welizwe kuphela ukuba “ugunyaziswe ngesithethe sembali somthetho wemipu. Inkundla yandula ukuvavanyazisa imithetho ukususela kwixesha lokusekwa, inkulungwane ye-199, kunye nenkulungwane yeshumi elinesi-19 (ngoku ke yona yayinempikiswano). Phantsi kovavanyo, umthetho ofuna “umthetho ofanelekileyo womthetho ofihliweyo wemvume efihliweyo wabethwa ngenxa yokunga kwengxelo yemvume esemthethweni ngonyaka wewaka elinayi-1719691, okanye i-18 yengxelo yemigwebo yengxelo yezoburhulumente, inguThobhiso yezoburhulumente, ichaza ngokunzulu

Imbali Nenkqubo Efanele Ilandelwe: Iimeko Zokuqhomfa

Dobs v. Jackson’s Health Organization [202], iNkundla ilawula Roe v. Wade kunye [[FLT]] [FLT]] u-Casey ngokusebenzisa imbali nemithetho ebhaliweyo [[[Flactractrand] kuMthetho woMphetho weMbetho we-145]. Umthetho woMphathi Alto uluvo oluninzi lwabonisa ukuba ukuqhomfa bekungeyo kulungile ngexesha lokuphuma komGaqo-siseko wezo okanye ukurhoxiswa komfa. Umthetho othe kokugqibela wobucala u-1999yi-19% wokwamgalelo, njengoko kuchazwe kakuhle ngembali yembali ebhaliweyo ngokwembali yomthetho oqhelekileyo, i-Angvolution, ingqina ukuba ink i-evo yalo yoluvo yoluvo yoluvo yolu hlobo lokuqala yolu hlobo lokuqala yoluvo lo

Imbali Namandla Alawulayo

Kumatyala abandakanya igunya lomongameli, iNkundla isoloko ijonga uqheliselo lwembali lwamanye amasebe. Umzekelo, kuMgaqo-siseko woKhuseleko lwaseHomeland v. Regents zeYunivesithi yaseCalifornia[[FLT:] (2020), iNkundla yaqwalasela ukupheliswa kweTrump yeNdlela yoKhuselo lwabantwana (DAC). UJaji Thomas wasebenzisa ubungqina bembali ukuphikisa ukuba isebe eliphetheyo alinawo amandla okudala ukufuduka okukhulu ngaphandle kogunyaziso lomthetho. Wacaphula indlela yokuqala yokuphatha i-Candelo luka-Claus (ecela umongameli ukuba “awunyamekele inkqubo yoMthetho. . .). Umthetho we-1991 uGciso lomthetho wolawulo lwezomthetho, akanakuqinisekisa ukuba uphakaliso lomthetho.

Ucelomngeni Nokugxekwa Kwemibhalo - ngqangi Yamandulo

Imfundiso yoqobo, ngokukodwa ukuthembela kwayo kwimibhalo nakwimbali, iye yagxekwa ngokuqhubekayo ngabaphengululi abaninzi, abagwebi nabagqabazi.

Ingxaki “Efileyo"

Eyona nto iqhelekileyo ukungavumelani kumthetho wobunzululwazi kukuba uxwebhu oludala alumele lubophe ibutho lanamhlanje. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ngelithi izandla ezifileyo zabalawuli azinakukwazi ukulawula ngokusemthethweni izigqibo zexeshana malunga nemibandela abangazange bayicinge, ukusuka kukuhlolwa kwamanani ukuya kubunjineli bemizila yemfuza. I-Exchangestrists iphendula ngokuthi umGaqo-siseko uquka iGaqo-siseko V, onika inkqubo yokulungisa okusesikweni, kwaye ukutshintsha uxwebhu kungcono ukuvumela abagwebi ukuba babhale kwakhona. Ngaphezu koko, baphikisa ukuba izigwebo ezininzi zomgaqo-siseko (njengokuthi “ukuphendla ngokungenankathalo” okanye“ ukuphendla nokuxhuzula okuneyo okunengqiqo”) zifake kwinqanaba eliphezulu lobugciphelo, zivumela ukusebenza kwizibakala ezintsha ngaphandle kokutshintsha intsingiselo yentsingiselo.

Iingxelo Zembali Ezingaphelelanga Nezahlukileyo

Imbali ayizange ibe nobundilele; oko kusekho kusenokubonakalisa ucalucalulo lwamadoda amhlophe aphezulu awawabhalayo. Abafazi, amakhoboka abantu, amaMelika, namanye amaqela bakhutshwa kakhulu kwiingxoxo zomGaqo-siseko. Ukuthembela kuphela kwiincwadi zabo, abagxeki bathi, kuyingozi ebangela imbono engakhethiyo nengalungiyo. Abaqululeki bayavuma ukuba imbali elinganiselweyo kodwa basoloko beqinisekisa ukuba intsingiselo kawonke-wonke wonke ayiphelelanga kwiimbono zabucala zamaFramers, iquka ukuqondwa komdla woburhulumente, nangona kwakusafuneka kukhulu kuyo yonke indawo. UJaji Kagan uqaphele ukuba ubukho bokuqala bunokuba buyinkqubo “embali efihlakeleyo engaqhelekanga” ukuba abagwebi abagwebi abalawuli bencwadi abafumana iziphumo ezinqwenelwayo.

Ingxaki Yokutshintsha Kweemeko

Ukugxininisa ngokungqongqo kwimbali kungavelisa iziphumo ezibonakala zingenangqiqo okanye ziyingozi namhlanje. Umzekelo, ukusebenzisa intsingiselo yokuqala yoMphengululo wesibini kungafuna ukubhukuqa imithetho emininzi yangoku ekhuselekileyo; ukusebenzisa intsingiselo yantlandlolo yeChwebo uClaus enokuthi ivumele iBhunga ukuba lilawule phantse nantoni na echaphazela urhwebo lwamazwe ngamazwe. Abaxhasi baphikisa ukuba indlela yabo ayicetyelwanga ukuvelisa inkqubo yobulumko, kodwa ukutolika ngokuthembeka umthetho. Ukuba abantu abawuthandi isiphumo, bangayilungisa umGaqo-siseko. Noko ke, le mpendulo ayibanelisi abo bakholelwa ukuba amalungelo angundoqo amele aguquke kwibutho labantu.

Ubunzima Bokulwa NeMajorita

UbuGqirha boqobo maxa wambi bugxekwa njengebuchasene nedemokrasi ngokuthe ngqo ngenxa yokuba buchasa utshintsho. Kodwa abaxhasi baphikisa ngokuthi: ngokunamathela kwintsingiselo emiselweyo emiselwe ngokwenziwa kwezixhobo ezinkulu, ubukho bantlandlolo buthintela abagwebi ekuthinteleni ukuthanda kwabantu. Ngaloo ndlela indlela ingumthetho othintela amandla okugweba. Noko ke, abahlalutyi babonisa ukuba ukufumanisa intsingiselo yantlalo-wonke ngokwayo kufuna ubuchule obukhulu bokutolika kwezahlulelo, ukushiya indawo epheleleyo yokulawula. Ingxoxo iyaqhubeka.

Isiphelo

Umbhalo nembali zihlala ziziintsika ezimbini zokutolika komGaqo-siseko. Ngokumisa izigqibo zomthetho kumazwi omGaqo-siseko kunye nomongo owamkelwa ngawo, abaqulunqi bazama ukunqanda ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho yokugweba nokuxhasa umthetho. Indlela ibumbe imigaqo emikhulu kumalungelo empuphu, ukuqhomfa, ukuphuma kwentetho, namandla olawulo oluphezulu, kwaye impembelelo yayo ayibonisi phawu lokuwohloka. Ngeli xesha linye, indlela edibeneyo ijongene neempikiswano ezingapheliyo zesandla esifileyo somthetho odlulileyo, ukungagqibeleli kobungqina bembali, nocelomngeni lokusebenzisa ulwimi olune-18thprecentur ku-21. Oku kugxeko-precentir. Oku kugxeka akubonisi yingozi, kodwa kufunwa ngamandla. Njengoko iNkuNkulwanoMongamist , kuya kuqhubeka ukuconga indlela yayo yokwahlulwa kwasekuqaleni, kunye nomthetho obalulekileyo womthetho wembali ye-Melika.

Ukuqhubeka ufunda, hlolisisa uluvo olupheleleyo kuHeller, , isigqibo seBHRUEN [, kunye neSiko loMgaqo-siseko weSizwe [[FLT:]] olungenamsebenzi [[FLT]]] [[FLT:]] olunobuchule [[5]] [omdlalikekileyo]] wembono womhlazimgxeki ufanele ujongene noluvo lomntu ogxekayo. [FLT]