Ukwazisa: Inethi yokhuseleko yomgaqo-siseko ukwenzela abasebenzi

UMgaqo-siseko weUnited States wawuqondwa ekuqaleni ukuba ubeke umda kuphela kurhulumente wesizwe. Oorhulumente bakarhulumente bashiyeka bekhululekile ukuchaza umlinganiselo wenkululeko yabantu ngabanye, inyaniso eyashiya amaMelika amaninzi . Ngokukhethekileyo amalungu amaqela aphantsi, `anyanzelwe kwimithetho ecinezelayo yorhulumente. Imfundiso yokuququzelelwa kwemithetho esesikweni, esekelwe kwiSibonelelo se-Adry Procession se-14th Reconstem Claus, ngokusisiseko yaguqula eli lizwe. Ngokufuna ukuba oorhulumente bawahlulele bawanike amalungelo amaninzi akhankanyiweyo kwiBhili yamaLungelo, i-onkomfa iye yaba ngumgaqo osemthethweni obalulekileyo wokukhusela abantu abachana kucalucalucalucalucalu, kwaye inyathelo elinelo loburhulumente.

Ukukhetha asikokusebenza okuzenzekelayo okanye okupheleleyo kweBhili yamaLungelo kumaphondo. Endaweni yoko, kuqhubeka ngetyala, ngasekunene, ngasekunene, ngeenkundla zelizwe. Le nkqubo yolwandiso iqinisekisa ukuba kuphela loo malungelo agqalwa “ngengqondo kwicebo lenkululeko yomyalelo” enziwa abophelele kumazwe. Kubemi ababuthathaka nabangenabunyani, amabhinqa, abantu abaneziphene, amahlwempu, kunye noogxa abambalwa bonqulo.

Isiseko Esingokwembali Sokwahlula Okuthile

Uhambo lokukhetha luqalisile ngesigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo Barron v. Baltimore (1833), eyayikholelwa ukuba iBhili yamaLungelo isebenza kurhulumente wezwe kuphela, hayi kumazwe. Ulawulo olo lweminyaka engamashumi amane, nasemva kokudityaniswa kweSindululo seGqibo se 149thi ngonyaka, esiqulathe ibinzana elithi “nabani nabani na uRhulumente ozakumhluba nabani na umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho." I-I-Grandmsmeter I-Grandttingstingssss ithetha ukusebenzisa uLungqweqwe lwamalungelo amatyala, yalahlwa, njengakwi-Case Case-Mss [FLT] [FON] [F3] [1] [183], apho ii-G.[1]

Imfundiso yale mihla yokukhetha i-Generic yavela ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yamashumi amabini. Gitlow v. New York (1925), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yabonisa ukuba inkululeko yokuGcinqisa Yokuqala yoMphetho-mda nokushicilela yasetyenziswa kumazwe kuMazwe akwi-Umthetho we-CSct Claus. Le yayingumzuzu obalulekileyo. [kumashumi eminyaka alandelayo], iNkuNkuqulu yasebenzisa “amalungelo angundoqo” ukufumanisa ukuba ngawaphi amalungiselelo eSindululo ayefuneka kakhulu ukuze ahlonelwe ngokokuba amele anikwe inkululeko. Njengoko iJastiozo zomthetho ibhalwe ngokudumileyo kwi [FLT:] Plat v.[FLT] [FLT] [3] [3] [197], imbono yasekunene imele ibe yenkululeko yokusetyenziswa kwenkululeko.[inkululeko sokusetyenziswa koku." iBlaydoodk kumbono ekwahlulwa kweNt.[igconvrences]

Ngezigqibo ezithe rhoqo,(-) ezininzi zazo ezivela ekungabini nabulungisa okuthwaxwa ngamaqela angenabunyani, ngokunjalo iNkundla iye yaquka phantse onke amalungiselelo eBhili yamaLungelo. Okuphawulekayo kubandakanya uthintelo lweSihlathu soHlaziyo olukwindawo ebanzi yamajoni, uMthetho oLawulweyo weFind 5 WesiHlanu wokugweba oluphezulu, kunye nokuthintelwa kweSindululo seMithetho-Jisibhozo ngebheyile egqithiseleleyo. Kodwa ukukhusela okungundoqo /ukusetyenziswa ngokukhululekile konqulo, ukukhusela ekuphembeleni nasekuxhuzumeni okungaqiqi, ilungelo lokumelana namangqina, ilungelo lokuzichasa ngokwesitho, nokuzikhusela ekuzichaseni ngokungenanceba neso olungaqhelekanga.

Indlela Ekhethwe Ngayo Ikhusela Ngokungqalileyo Abemi Abanokukhutshwa

Abemi abangenakukwazi ukuhlaziywa ngala maqela aye akhutshwa embalini ekuthabatheni inxaxheba ngokupheleleyo kubomi bentlalo-ntle okanye ekucalulweni. Ngenxa yokuba urhulumente kunye noorhulumente basekuhlaleni badla ngokumisela imithetho eyenzakalisa la maqela, ukuqulunqwa kwamalungu asekuhlaleni kwaba sisixhobo esiyimfuneko ekucel ’ umngeni imithetho enjalo kwinkundla yephondo. Ngesicawa, sihlolisisa indlela ukuqulucalulo kwamalungelo athile okuye kwakhusela ngayo imimandla emininzi engooonomngcipheko.

Ubuncinane Beentlanga Nezizwe

Akukho qela lingenelwe ngakumbi ekukhetheni icandelo elinobuhlanga obuncinane, ingakumbi ama-Afrika. Ukuhlaziywa kweNkundla ePhakamileyo `Thirtenth', 14neth, kunye ne-15th'. Kwayilwa ukuchitha isakhiwo esisemthethweni sobukhoboka, kodwa eMzantsi wamisa ngokukhawuleza inkqubo entsha yokukhetha kunye nokukhulula okwaziwayo kwaziwa ngokuba nguJim Crow. Kwiminyaka engamashumi angamashumi, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa uhlanga lwesizwe phantsi “kodwa kodwa yalingana” nemfundiso ye . Pystem v. Ferguson 1866]. Noko ke, ukuqululwa kwenkundla engakhethiyo kwayivumela ukuba ekugqibeleni inkundla ihlabe umthetho we-convolution njengemithetho engundoqo.

Ityala elichithiweyo yayingu Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (1954), eyayikholelwa ukuba ucalulo lobuhlanga kwizikolo zikawonke wonke lwalwaphula ukhuseleko olulinganayo lwe-145th Amendment. Nangona uBrown wagqiba ngokukhusela okulinganayo kunokufaka isiseko, ingqiqo yakhe yayixhomekeke kwingcamango yokuba umgangatho wasekunene kwimfundo engekho semthethweni yayisisiseko. Amatyala aquka ukukhuselwa koMphetho wokuqala wentetho nendibano ukuze akhusele amalungelo abantu. [[FLT:] [FLT]] [2]] EEdvens v [12] [6] [3] ukuchasa imigaqo yoluvo] ukuchasa i-Genesoluvos mthetho woxolo kwimo ye-Geneast - Coographidsting [5] [4] ukuqinisekisa i-Genegnomes transf kumthetho olight transf kungeneansf trans, transcric, ukudians

Ukuqukwa koMphetho-Mgaqo-nkqubo wesine wokukhusela ukuphengululwa okungekho ngqiqweni nokuxhuzula, okusetyenziswa ku- Mapp v. Ohio (1961]), kwakhona kwaneziphumo ezinzulu kwingingqi ezincinane. Ngoku kwafuneka amapolisa afumane imiyalelo esekelwe kwisizathu esilindelekileyo, ukucutha amandla okuqhuba ubuhlanga phantsi kokunyanzeliswa komthetho karhulumente. Umthetho owenziwe ngokungekho mthethweni ngokomthetho wafumana ubungqina obunobuchule bokulwa nokuphathwa kakubi.

Amabhinqa Neemfuno

Ukukhetha kukwaluncedo ekuqhubeni phambili amalungelo amabhinqa. Nangona iCompale Protection Claus of the 14th Amendment yachazwa ekuqaleni ukuvumela ucalucalulo olusekelwe kwisondo, ukufakwa kwenkqubo efanelekileyo kunye namalungelo obuqu kuvule iindlela ezintsha. Reed v. Reed (1971], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yexesha lokuqala yabetha umthetho wesizwe owacalula ngesiseko sesondo, usebenzisa i-Super Livetment Claus eSizibo s. Kodwa yayikuquququzelo sasekunene ukuya ku-Qoth, u-Gabiso-Gene, u-Gene, no-Preventstionstions .

[[FLT: 0] .[FLT]] Roe v. [773], iNkundla yaqonda ukuba ilungelo elisemthethweni lokuzibandakanya linikezelwe kwisigqibo somfazi sokuphelisa ukukhulelwa. Ngelixesha Roe[ ukususela ngoko iphelisiwe, imfundiso efihlakeleyo yakhiwe ngokubandakanya. Ngoku, [[FLT]] Ngubani owempilo yebhinqa v.] Hellstent[ (20) ukhuseleko lwenkululeko ye-145] ukukhupha isisulelo sokukhupha isisulelo eTexa esibekwe phantsi kweminyanzelo efuna inkathalo. Kuka, ukukhuselwa kwe--ethengwa kwamabhinqa amalungelo e-enzekileyo ekukhuseleni amalungelo omthetho.

Kumntu ngamnye, iqumrhu elikhethayo linikeze isiseko semithetho yombuso elucelomngeni ekhankanyiweyo. Obergefell v. Hodges (2015], iNkundla ePhakamileyo ifake ilungelo lokutshata kunye----------enye phantsi kwe-Sective Project neSikhuseli-Silingani sokhuseleko u-Celas (u-Celas). Ngelixa ityala lithetha kakhulu ngembonakalo yesondo, ukuqiqaqaqa kwayo kuqikelelo lwayo olungundoqo ukukhusela abantu emtshatweni nakukhuliseni. Ukongeza, ukuquququzelelwa kwenkululeko yokuqala yokuthetha intetho kukhusele ilungelo lokudlulisela ubufana-bufanayo ukuze kuvakalise ubufanabo babo besini bobufana.

LGBTQ+ Uluntu

Ukufakwa kwelungelo lokunxulumana ngokusondeleyo nokuzimela kwavukelwa kwiLGBTQ+ abantu ngabanye. Lawrence v. Texas [2003], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yagawula umthetho waseTexas owathi wasebenzisa umthetho we-commone-sodom. UJaji Kennedy, ebhalela uninzi, wabambelela kwinkululeko ekhuselwe yi-Umthetho ka Clausleasmee waquka ilungelo labantu abadala lokubanda kwihambo yesondo yangasese ngaphandle kophazamiso karhulumente. [[FLT:]]

Ukwakhiwa umlomo , iNkundla . [Obergefell v. Hodges (2015]) wakholelwa ukuba ilungelo lokutshata yayiyinkululeko esisiseko ekhuselwe yi-Sected Programme Claus nelokuba amazwe akanakukhanyela izibini ezifanayo ezinelungelo lokutshata. Esi sigqibo safaka umlinganiselo womtshato njengomgaqo-siseko wesizwe wasekunene, imithetho elawulayo karhulumente eyayivale umtshato omnye-uthe -. Umthetho wawuneengenelo olukhawulezileyo lweLGBTQ+, kuquka amalungelo okufumana ifa, iinzuzo ezintle, kunye nokutyelelo lwesibhedlele. Ngaphandle kokuzinziso oluqhelekileyo, umgangatho wemeko oluqhelekileyo lwesizwe olusuka ekhohlo, ulawulo oluqhelekileyo lwezinziweyo olusemthethweni.

Ngaphezu koko, ukuqukwa kwenkululeko yokuthetha yoMchiza wokuqala nokuzilolonga ngenkululeko kukhusele abantu abathile kwi-LGBTQ yesizwe ekucunulweni kwentetho yabo nakwimithetho enokubanyanzela ukuba bafihle imbonakalo yabo. INkundla ingqinela ngokuphindaphindiweyo ukuba urhulumente akanakunyanzela abantu ukuba bathethe ngeendlela ezibonakalisa ukungahloneli melo kwabo, ziqinisekisa ukuba olu khuseleko lusekelwe kuMphetho wokuqala oqululiweyo.

Abantu Abaneziphene

Ngoxa ulwaleko lwamalungelo okhubazeko lwangoku luyi-statory (Umthetho waseMerika oneziphene ka1990, uMthetho wokuRehabilita, okhethayo woMthetho weBhayiselo-Mgaqo-siseko, oye wasetyenziswa ukuphelisa amanye amalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko unikezele ukhuseleko olongezelelekileyo. Umthetho wesi-Heighth Amend Amendment owenzelwe ukunqanda inkohlakalo nengaqhelekanga, oqukiweyo kwi Robinson] v. [FLT] California[FLD]] [1962]] [1962]]), umgaqo osetyenziswa ukuphelisa umthetho karhulumente owenze ukuba ube likhoboka lolwaphulo-mthetho lokusebenzisa i-narctics.” INkuNku yaqithiso iqikelelwa ukuba iso elinxulumene nokukhubazeka okuziweyo okuziweyo. Lo mgaqo ukhuselwe ukukhusela abantu nge-8.

I-Battle Strass Claus isetyenziswa ukubonelela ngenkathalo efanelekileyo kubantu abakhubazekileyo. uLeachberg v. Romeo (19982], iNkundla ePhakamileyo ibambelele kwelokuba umntu owenziwe umlwelwe ngengqondo kwiqumrhu lorhulumente wayenenkqubo efanelekileyo yokubonelela kwiimeko ezikhuselekileyo, inkululeko ekuzibambeni ngokwasemzimbeni, kunye nokuqeqeshwa okuncinane ngokwaneleyo. Olmstead v. L.C.[FLT.:3]] [1999]]) wachaza u-ADAA ifuna ukuba kunikezelwe unyango olufanelekileyo kunokuba luqwalaselwe, kodwa kwakhona iNkulungisa ingqiqo yayo ephambili ekwamkelekileyo kwiNkubonelo olubalulekileyo.

Ukufakwa kokhuseleko loMphetho-mda wesi-4 wokuphanda nokuxhuzula okungekho ngqiqweni kuye kwabalulekile nakubantu abaneziphene, ingakumbi ngenxa yokuzibophelela nokukhusela ulawulo. Iinkundla ziye zafuna ukuba kulandelwe imigaqo engqongqo ngaphambi kokuba umntu ahlulwe inkululeko yomzimba, ukuqinisekisa ukuba abantu abachaphazelekayo abagcinwa ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo.

Abantu Abaswele Izoqoqosho

Amahlwempu aye asoloko esengozini yokulawula, ingakumbi kwinkqubo yogwebo lomthetho. Ukukhetha iqumrhu kulungiselele imigaqo efunekayo kubamangalelwa abagwebi abangenamthetho. Gedeon v. Wainright [1963], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaqinisekisa ukuba ilungelo leSixweso-Mbeko seSithandathu sokuLandli lisetyenziswa ekuchazeni izigqeba zolwaphulo-mthetho, ifuna ukuba kunikwe igqwetha ityala elinokukwazi ukuhlawula omnye. Esi sigqibo sasisaguqula ityala kuba sasilingana nomhlaba wokudlala phakathi kwezityebi nabanga eliphantsi kwetyala. Ngokunjalo, [[FLT] Griff2] v [FLD] [FLT] [56] [1956] ichaza ukuba kunikezelwe ngokuzinziswano kumthetho olungenatyala, i-Celsigcius.

Ukufakwa komthetho wesiH.E. Isindululo soMphetho-mthetho wesiXhobo esigqithisileyo, esisetyenziswa ku- u-Timbs v. Indiana (2029), ukhusela abantu abafumana imali ephantsi ekufumaneni izinto zabo ngorhulumente ngelahleko yasekuhlaleni. Le mithetho yahlola amandla karhulumente kunye namapolisa asekuhlaleni ukuze angenele ekuthabatheni impahla yabahlwempuzekileyo. I-'Bast Proces Clausce' ifuna kwakhona ukuba kunikelwe iinzuzo zentlalo-ntle phambi kokuphelisa intlawulo lwentlalo-ntle ( Goldberg v.[, 1970, iqinisekisa ukuba imeko ayinako ukuqhawula ii-Plance ngaphandle koncedo olunentsingiselo.

Amancinane Onqulo Nabaphambukeli

IFree Exening Claus yeFirst Amendment, efakwe ku Cantwell v.Connecticut [1940], ikhusela iinkonzo ezincinane kwimithetho karhulumente ejolise kwiinkolelo zazo okanye kwimisebenzi. Ngokomzekelo, amaNgqina kaYehova, aye afumana iinkonzo zamandulo xa iNkundla ibetha umthetho karhulumente ofuna amanxusa onqulo ukufumana imvume, ebambe ukuba urhulumente akanakukwazi ukubeka imo yenkonzo kwimvume yemvume esemthethweni yemvume. [[FLT] [FLT:]] V.[FLT] V.[FLT] [12] [196] [6]))) ingenakukwazi ukukhusela iinkolelo zabo zonqulo.

Kubemi abafudukayo, ukuququzelela abaphambukeli, kuye kwasikelwe umda ngenxa yokuba urhulumente wesizwe uhlala ephangalele ngamandla okufuduka. Noko ke, iMsebenzi yeNkqubo kaClaus ikhusela abantu, hayi nje abemi, kwintsimi yase-U.S.. [[FLT: 0] Plyler v. Doe [1982], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseTexa umthetho weTexakeko engavumiyo ukuba abantwana bangangeni. INkundla yathiyamela ukuba urhulumente ucalucalucalulo olukwileyo kubantwana, iqikele ukuba abantwana babe ngabamsulwa nakuphi na ukwaphulwa kolwaphulo-mthetho wokufuduka yaye imfundo ibisisiseko. Ngokukhawuleza, [FOct:2] uGadada waphula umthetho wemfundo e-wonke-wonke-octive.[Foct3] [Foct3] [2001], iNkukholelwa kwimiqatha yeNgwebo engenakugwetyelwayo, ukuvunywa kwemeko, ukuvunywa kwemeko, ukuvunywa kwe

Imida Yokukhetha

Phezu kwako nje ukuba namandla, ukuququzelela okukhethayo akuyokhathalo olugqibeleleyo. Asilolungiselelo lonke eliququzelelweyo leBhili yamaLungelo. Imfuneko yeSindululo sesihlanu sokuchophela amatyala amakhulu abachopheli-tyala kumatyala karhulumente ayisebenzi kumaphondo. Ukhuseleko lwesithathu loMphengululo aluzange lufakwe, nangona lunqabile. Okubaluleke ngakumbi, ilungelo lesibini loMfungxelo woMphetho-mda lokugcina nokuthwala izixhobo lafakwa kuphela uMcDonald v.[[FLT:] [20] [20]), kunye nomlinganiselo wokhuphiswano oluthe kwicala lasekunene. Abantu abahlala bephila ngemithetho eqinileyo banokufumana amalungelo abo okuHlunyuselwa, kodwa kwakhona basenokufumana iingozi ezingakumbi zokungaluthwa kompula.

Ngaphezu koko, ukudibanisa okuzikhethayo akuzenzekeli kuthintele ucalulo lwemeko. Imilinganiselo yeNkundla Ephakamileyo yokuhlola iyahlukahluka. Ngokweentlobo zobuhlanga, iNkundla isebenzisa uhlalutyo olungqongqo, olunzima ukwanelisa amazwe. Kodwa xa kuhlelwa ngokweziphene ngokusekelwe kwisiphene, ubudala, okanye ubutyebi, iNkundla isoloko isebenzisa uhlolo oluqikelelwayo, inika ireji yomlinganiselo othile. Oku kuthetha ukuba amaqela angenazikhuseli ahlulele ukuba “asi entsomi” okanye “asiscio-'ssss'ssss unit phantsi komgangatho weSikhuseli sokhuseleko u-Classiclee enokuthi kunzima ukuvavanya umgaqo wobugcimbiso-mthetho wokwa-mthetho wokwamngeni-mthetho wokwa-osipala kuphela.

Ukongezelela, ukukhusela abantu abasengozini kuxhomekeke ekuvumeni kweenkundla zikarhulumente ukuqaphela amalungelo amatsha asisiseko. Kwiminyaka yakutshanje, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yathatha indlela yobulumko yokuqalisa, iyala ukwenza amahlelo amatsha asisiseko amalungelo phantsi kwe-CST Process Claus. Umzekelo, iNkundla yarhoxa yamaDobs v. Jackson iQueqesho lwaMandla aMandla [2022]) ukuvuma ilungelo elisisiseko lokuqhomfa, ukubhukuqa [[FLT] v. Wade kwaye ibuyisela umba-mali kumazwe. Esi sigqibo sibalase ukuba i-protocomstion ayiguqukanga okanye incipheliselwanga kwintanda-bulumko.

Isiphelo: Ukukhetha Imali njengesiqinisekiso esiphilayo

Ukukhetha okuqulethweyo kusenye yezona mfundiso zibalulekileyo zomGaqo-siseko ukukhusela amalungelo abantu abasengozini. Ngokuwenza uninzi lwamalungelo amaninzi eBhili yamaLungelo abophelele oorhulumente, iqinisekisa ukuba inkululeko esisiseko /inkululeko, ukucofa, unqulo, icebiso, ukuzifihla, kunye nenkqubo efunekayo . Imbali yokudibanisa abantu abanobungozi yimbali yokwanda kwenkululeko: ukusuka ekuququlunqeni kwasekuqaleni kokuthetha ngokukhululekileyo ukukhusela abaphikisi bezobupolitika, ukuququzelela ilungelo lokucebisa amahlwempu, ukuququlunqwa kwemithetho yomtshato kutsha nje, ukudityaniswa kwezibini ezitshatileyo kunye nezibini ezingox.

Kumntu obomi okanye indlela yokuziphilisa ixhomekeke ekukhuseleni ilungelo lomGaqo-siseko, elikhethayo yibhulorho esemthethweni phakathi kwesithembiso seBhili yamaLungelo kunye negunya lokwenene lorhulumente. Abemi abanokusetyenziswa ngokuyintloko belo bhulorho, besebenzisa yona ukucel ’ umngeni ucalucalulo, isohlwayo solwaphulo-mthetho, nokukhanyelwa kweenkonzo ezisisiseko. Njengoko uhlanga luqhubeka lulwisana nemibandela yokungalingani nokungabi nabulungisa, abakhethi bobuni bahlala besisisixhobo esibalulekile sokuqinisekisa ukuba akukho rhulumente onokuthi aphikise abantu balo amalungelo angundoqo achaza inkululeko yaseMerika.

[[UMTL_HAWU] Izibonelelo:[[UMKCU]