Ukwazisa: UMthetho wokulungelelanisa woMgaqo-siseko

Ulwalamano phakathi kolawulo lukarhulumente namalungelo orhulumente lungumxholo oyintloko kumthetho-siseko waseMelika. IFramers yayila inkqubo karhulumente apho urhulumente wesizwe noorhulumente besizwe basabelana khona ngegunya, kodwa iBhili yamaLungelo ekuqaleni ibeke urhulumente wezwe kuphela. UMthetho we-144th Amendment, wagunyaziswa ngo1868, ngokusisiseko waguqula eli lungiselelo ngokumisela amaLungelo okanye u-Immunion Clause, i-ISct Procement Claus, kunye ne-Acial Providefic Prote. Iinkundla zanamhlanje zijongene izigqibo ezintsoko xa zimisela ukulungelelanisa le migaqo emibini, ingakumbi kwiimeko ezibandakanya [[FLT:] i-corationporation yamaLungelo okuNgamanyulwayo, eli nqaku lihlola indlela iinkundla ezilungele ulungele umgaqo-mthetho, imigaqo zenkqubo, ngokomgalelo lwesithethe.

Ingcamango Yomanyano

I-corporation ibhekiselele kwinkqubo esemthethweni apho ukhuseleko lweBhili yamaLungelo lusetyenziswa khona kumazwe ngoMphetho-mvakaliso weshumi elinesine. Ngaphandle kokuququzelela, urhulumente, umzekelo, angaseka unqulo lorhulumente okanye athintele ukuthetha okugxekayo kwerhuluneli, lo gama nje umgaqo-siseko wayo wawuvumela. UMthetho weMimiselo weshumi elinesine weSimplicioth waguqula icalculus ngokunika ukuba akukho rhulumente uya “kuvelisa nawuphi na umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho.” I-Duedrate Eprocession Clacesss yaba yisithulo eyintloko yokusebenzisa amalungelo akhethekileyo karhulumente ngokuchasene norhulumente.

Ukuxhathisa Kwangaphambili Ukunganxibelelani

[[NKT.] Britron v. Baltimore (1833), iNkundla Ephakamileyo yathi iBhili yamaLungelo isebenza kurhulumente wezwe lonke, hayi kumazwe. Kwiminyaka engamashumi emva koMphetho-Mdangatho we-145, iNkundla yalwa nolwakhiwo olupheleleyo. Ukuchasa kweNdlukwano [[FLT]] [[FLT]] [1873] [1], iNkuchaza ngokufutshane amalungelo okanye i-Immisclate Claus, ngokunelisayo ucangomcango kuloo ndlela. Kakhulu, ibandakanya kuphela kwiNxombolo ye-kunene ye-Clauss Clausse, kwaye kusuka kwimfundiso eyaziwayo [FFFoct:]

I-Incorpoution vs. Iyonke I-Icorporation

UJaji Hugo Black waphikisa ngokuthi “amanani apheleleyo.[FLK] [[FFF:] [FF2] [FFF:] [FFON] [37]. UMthetho weNkqutyana weshumi elinesine wenza ukuba lonke elo lungelo lisebenze kumazwe. Noko ke, iNkundla yamkela indlela ephakathi exhaswe nguJaji Benjamin Cardozo [[FL:]] P[10]. Connecticut[[[FFF][3] [FFFFF]] [evossion, ingce:[10], icandelo elingethekileyo, [[4] [e-FFFF], ingg:[10], icandelo [e.FFog] [e.Nt.Nt]

Indima YeNkundla Ephakamileyo Ekuhlambululeni

INkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. inendima ebalulekileyo ekuchazeni umlinganiselo wokuququzelela. Isigqibo ngasinye esingundoqo sifuna ukulungelelanisa umdla karhulumente ekukhuseleni amalungelo omntu ngamnye nxamnye nomdla karhulumente ekulondolozeni inkululeko yasekuhlaleni. Inzululwazi yeNkundla isoloko ityhila intanda-bulumko yayo esisiseko ngolawulo lorhulumente.

Oonobumba Abangathathi Ngqo

[FLT] .[FLT]Gitlow v. New York (25): INkundla ePhakamileyo yabanjwa okokuqala ukuba inkululeko yokuthetha ekhuselwe yiSihlaziyo sokuQhubela uGawulayo isebenza kumazwe ukudlula kuMsebenzi weMsebenzi weNkqubo yeMthethweni ka-1456 ka-Claus. Nangona iNkuxhasa ukunyanzelisa kwe-mstiki, yaseka okokuba “inkululeko yokuthetha neyokushicilela ... iphakathi kwamalungelo obalulekileyo obuqu kunye ‘ nokukhuselwa kwenkqubo efunekayo ye-1459 yokuLamlayishwa koMbeko-yo."

[[NTLA:0][FLT]Palko v. Connecticut (1937] INkundla ayizange ivume ukudibanisa ukhuseleko lweMgqomo-ziNhlanu ophindiweyo, ifumana ukuba urhulumente angazama ukuphinda axolele ummangalelwa ngaphandle kokwaphula “umgaqo wokusesikweni osekelwe kwizithethe nakwisazela sabantu bethu njengoko umele ubekwe njengesiseko.” Lo mgangatho ukhokele izigqibo kamva eziphendulweyo kwizigqibo ezingamashumi eminyaka.

[FLT][FUN] v. Louisiana (1968): INkundla yaquka uHluliso lweSithandathu nelungelo lokuqulunqwa kwityala labagwebi kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho, ibambe ukuba iityala zabachopheli-mthetho zingundoqo kucwangciso lwezigwebo zobulungisa zaseMelika. IJaji Byron White yagxininisa ukuba xa ilungelo “liyimfuneko ... ukuqinisekisa ubulungisa nokuqhubeka,” kufuneka isebenze ngokufanayo kwinkundla zolawulo nolawulo lwamaqumrhu.

McDonald v. IsiXeko seChicago (2010): kwisigqibo [5/4] iNkundla iquka ilungelo lesibini loMphetho-Mdazelo ukugcina nokuphatha iintambo zozibopha, ukubetha phantsi uvalelo lwesandla sompu weChicago. Uluvo oluphakathi nguSamuel Alito luxhomekeke kwiMsebenzi weNkqubo ekwalathiswa nguNombolo kwaye yaphawula ukuba iNkunene ineengcambu enzulu yembali kwaye “icebo lokuzikhulula."

[FLT]Timbs v. Indiana (2029): INkundla yadibanisa kunye iSend Reconfs Reconfs Exterlinement, ifuna ukuba amazwe ahlonele ukuvalwa kwemali ehliweyo egqithisileyo. Isigqibo saxhomekeke kwisibakala sokuba ukukhusela ekuhlawuleni okugqithisileyo “kwakuxhomekeke kwicebo lethu lenkululeko eyayalelwayo” kwaye kwaqashelwa kumthetho wesiNgesi ukususela kwiMagna Carta.

Ukulungelelanisa uBukhosi beSizwe namalungelo aManyano

Ngeli xesha iNkundla iye yandisa ukhuseleko lukarhulumente, ikwakugqala ukubaluleka kokuhlonela ulawulo lukarhulumente. Ama-odolo anemimiselo yawo, imigaqo-siseko yolwaphulo-mthetho, iinkqubo zolawulo, kunye nezinto eziphambili. Xa urhulumente engquzulana nomthetho karhulumente, iinkundla kufuneka zigqibe enoba inzala karhulumente iwuthethelela umgaqo-siseko nokuba ilungelo likarhulumente libaluleke ngokwenene kusini na.

Umgaqo WobuProtestanti

Inkundla ePhakamileyo iqinisekisa ngokuphindaphindiweyo ukuba urhulumente weNkundla ePhakamileyo ungomnye wamagunya adwelisweyo, lo gama amazwe ewagcina amandla aphangaleleyo amapolisa ukukhusela impilo, ukhuseleko, kunye nokuziphatha kwabemi bawo. United States lineUnited States v. Lopez [1995], iNkundla yawisa umthetho karhulumente olawulayo kufutshane nezikolo, iqinisekisa ukuba uMgaqo-siseko awuliniki gunya elingenasiphelo. Ngokufanayo, Printz v. United States [1997]), iNkukholelwa ukuba urhulumente worhulumente akasayileli umthetho wegunya-rhulumente ukuba aqinisekise imithetho yemipulmo. Ezi meko zibalasemgaqo-mthetho azibalaseleleli zinike ulawulo lwesizwe ukuba lujongene.

Imfundiso Echasene Nomyalelo

Inxulumene nolawulo lukarhulumente yimfundiso e- elawulayo , eyalela iKhomishini ekufuneni ngokuthe ngqo iimeko ukuzalisekisa iinkqubo zikarhulumente. New York v. United States [1992] kunye [[FLT]] [FLT]] Shicilelaz[FLT] [5], iNkukhupha iCurt Commentsting Referencessssssssssssss trapt derectoresssssssss provicessiverationssssss. I-corporate ye-ecestericesterer procepties.

Iinkundla Zephondo Nokuthethelela

Iinkundla zelizwe zikwadlala indima ekulungelelaniseni ulawulo namalungelo. Umgaqo-siseko omninzi worhulumente unikela ukhuseleko olubanzi kuneSigqeba samalungelo esizwelo. Ama-odolo anamandla okuchaza imigaqo-siseko yawo ngokwayo, logama nje zingawi ngaphantsi kobuncinane bezwe. Ngokomzekelo, ezinye iinkundla zelizwe zibambelele kwelokuba umgaqo-siseko wazo ukhusela amalungelo okuqhomfa nasemva [umthetho omtsha] uvumela ukuba ube yindawo yokucoca idemocralickisho ngexa kusekho amalungelo ombuso.

Iimvavanyo Nemigaqo Esemthethweni Esetyenziswa Ziinkundla

Iinkundla zisebenzisa iimvavanyo ezahlukahlukeneyo ezisemthethweni ukuqinisekisa ulungelelwano xa imithetho karhulumente ingqubana namalungelo karhulumente aqulunqiweyo.

Uphando Olungqongqo

Uvavanyo lomgaqo-siseko [ luvavanyo olufuna umlinganiselo wohlolo lwezomthetho. Umthetho wesizwe othwele umthwalo ekunene, njengenkululeko yokuthetha okanye ilungelo lokuphatha iingalo, kufuneka ulungiswe ngokunqamlezileyo ukufikelela umdla karhulumente. [[FLT:]] [[FLT]] i-Gautebral of Columbia v. [2008] [iinkululeko yokuthetha] (isetyenziswa ukuchaza izinto ezidlula [[[FLT]]] McDildd ]), iNkutsho iNkuveza ukuba imimiselo emininzi yemipu izakuhlala ijongelwe ngokungqongqo, kodwa imiqathango epheleleyo yemipu ayizange isetyenziswe. sydecial transss transty ijonge ukuchance.

Uvavanyo oluphakathi

Amanye amalungelo, anjengentetho yorhwebo okanye okuqulethweyo-ngangeneliyo ixesha, indawo, kunye nendlela, aphantsi kovavanyo oluchaphazelekayo . Umbuso kufuneka ubonise ukuba umthetho usebenza kumdla obalulekileyo karhulumente kwaye unxulumene kakhulu nomdla. I-Rock Against Racian [1999], iNkundla isebenzisa uhlolo oluphakathi kwimithetho yesandi sesixeko, iwuphakamisa njengemimiselo esengqiqweni yexesha, indawo, kunye nendlela yokuthetha.

Impinda Esisiseko

Emininzi imithetho yezoqoqosho nemithetho engabandakanyeki malungelo asisiseko okanye iinkalo ezirhanelwayo, iinkundla zisebenzisa uhlolo lwesiseko sokwalathisa . Umthetho ucetywa ukuba ungumGaqo-siseko, kwaye umcebisi makabonise ukuba awunalulwalamano olufanelekileyo kumdla osemthethweni karhulumente. Lo mgangatho ubekelwe umlinganiselo obanzi wokuzama inkqubo, nokuba iinkundla zezwe zinokungavumelani nobulumko bomthetho.

Isikali Esingenakukwazi Ukutshintsha

Asiyiyo yonke iBhili yamaLungelo echaziwe ngokulinganayo. Amanye amalungelo, njengamalungelo okululeka kwiimvavanyo zefelony ( Gideon), athathwa njengabaluleke kakhulu kangangokuba asebenzisa ngokupheleleyo kumaphondo. Amanye, njengeSiThathu soMgqibelo sokugqibezelo kumacala amancinane ( [FLT]]] [[FLT]]]), asetyenziswa kuphela xa iziphumo ezinzulu zibethelelwe engxhwele. Inkundla ikwayamkelekile ukuba inokuthi inokuthi ibeke iinguquko ezisengqiqweni, njengokuba ingadeli phantsi kwetyala elilungileyo. Umzekelo [[FLT:] AP [FLD] v.[FT] [FT]] [127], iNkuchaza ukuba iNkugqibo-197]

Uphuhliso Nocelomngeni Lwakutshanje

Amatyala atsha nje eNkundla Ephakamileyo ayaqhubeka evavanya imida yokubandakanya kunye negunya likarhulumente. Iingxoxo ngamalungelo emipu, ngenkululeko yokuthetha kwi-intanethi yoluntu, kwinkululeko yonqulo, kunye nangasese zibalaselisa uxanduva oluqhubekayo phakathi kokhuseleko lukarhulumente nemigaqo karhulumente. Ukuyilwa kweNkundla kutshintshile, yaye eminye imizekeliso yokuququzelela iyathandatyulwa.

IsiHlanzi sesiBini soHlaziyo emva Bruen

Ku iNew York State Rifle & Prispol Association v. Bruen [2022], iNkundla yabetha phantsi “isizathu esifanelekileyo” sokuthwala imvume. Abaninzi bamkela uvavanyo olutsha: imithetho yemipu yale mihla mayihambisane nembali yomthetho wemipu. Olu vavanyo lunika ingqiqo encinci kwaye lukhokelele kwimijelo yemipu enzima yelizwe laseNew York. Abanye abaphengululi baphikisa ukuba Brun ngokunempumelelo umlinganiselo woburhulumente ngokulinganisela iyunifomu, imbali esekelwe kwimiqathango yemeko. Njenge California, i-Wersey, kwaye baye basebenzisa inkqubo egosagosagosayo enyanzekileyo ye- Hawaii okanye i-ogroway.

Ulawulo Olukhululekileyo Lwentetho Nolawulo Lwelizwe

Uhlaziyo lokuqala lumiselwe kakuhle, kodwa ubugcisa bezi mini budala ungquzulwano olutsha. Packingham v. North Carolina (2017), iNkundla yawisa umthetho wezwe obhalisayo owelela abaphuli-mthetho ababhaliswe ngokwesini ekusebenziseni i-media, ibambe ukuba umthetho uthintele ukufikelela “kwisikwere sale butho likawonke-wonke-wonke.” [[FLT:]] Moody v. Nethoice, LLC [2024], iNkuxhasa umyalelo oqhelekileyo ngokuchasene nolawulo lwezezoshishino-ndaba-ndaba-ndaba-ndaba zentlalo oluno oluno olunolungele ubungcangcangca, kodwa isigqibo sasimfayimfayi kwimimiselo lomthetho. Ezi meko zibonisa ukuba zimele zithele imigaqo yokulawula imigaqo engaphakathi kodwa zimele i-Genegalelo lokuqala.

Inkululeko Yonqulo Nobudlelane

ISigqibo soMgqibeko soQotho olukhululekileyo sifakwe ukususela Cantwell v. Connecticut[[FT:1] [1940]. ] I-Employment Repaint v. Smith[[[FL:3] [1990], iNkundla yabambelela ekubeni ukungathathi cala-nxaxheba, jikelele imigaqo esebenzayo esetyenziswayo phakathi konqulo ayingqubanisi Free Execrence Claise. Ingqungqungquthela iyaqhubeka nomthetho wobuzwelo lwenkululeko (RRA), esebenza kurhulumente worhulumente worhulumente. Amazwe amaninzi aye ayenza inkqubo yawo ye RFRA, kwaye inkundla ichaza imithetho yayo efuna ukuqwalaselwa ngokungqongqo kwemithwalo yezonqulo. Imbuthotho ye-othotho yomthetho yomthetho womthetho womthetho iyaqhubeka, [FF] ngokutsha nje) [F] [12] i-F.1]

Inkqubo ePhambili neNkqubela-mali

Ngokuqhelekileyo ixhomekeke kwinkqubo efunekayo, kodwa inkqubo encinci efunekayo iye yaba yisithuthi. [[FLT:] Dobts v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization [202], iNkundla ixhomekeke kwiprocess . Inguqu yabaphathi-mthetho ingu-Roev. [[FFFF] ingunxa-mbili] ingumzekelo we-''''''''''. [[10] Isigqibo esithenjiwe'''' ithenjiwe , [[10] [f] ithek'ethek' ithek' ithek' i-' i-FFoct: [5] ithekt] ithek' inkce ink'ethelela amanye amalungelo.[5] xa ithe yafumana amalungelo athile, [fgrome-egromes][10]

Ikamva Lokungavisisani Nomanyano

Ulungelelwano phakathi kolawulo lukarhulumente namalungelo orhulumente lunamandla.

Ubuntsundu Nobuqhetseba

Uninzi lweNkundla ePhakamileyo ngoku ithi ichaza iindlela zoqobo. Abaququzeleli bezoqobo badla ngokuphikisa ngelithi ukuququzelela kwe-Scialia kumele kupheleliselwe kumalungelo “aqondakele ukuba angundoqo ngexesha lokwandiswa kwe-145th Amendment.” McDDald[, ukuvumelana kukaSekiswano noMphicotho kaScialiyani kumele ukudityaniswa kwamalungelo okanye amaImmusclace Claus, hayi kuphela amalungelo akwiNClaus Claus, kwaye iNT, iNT [ibr FR] yeNT] embali iNT, iNT, iNult Creace.[3]

UmGaqo-siseko weSizwe njengoKhuselo oluzimeleyo

Ezinye izigwebi ziye zabonakalisa umdla ekuvumeleni amazwe ukuba abe bhetyebhetye ngakumbi, ingakumbi xa imizekelo karhulumente ingacaci. IJaji uThomas iphikisa ngelithi amalungelo okanye izikhundla zika-Immuniti yisithuthi esifanelekileyo sokudibanisa kwaye amatyala kufuneka abe nobubanzi obubanzi ukuchaza amalungelo angaphaya komgangatho karhulumente. Okwangoku, iinkundla zephondo eNew York, eKhalifoniya, naseWashington ziye zatolika umgaqo-siseko wazo ukukhusela amalungelo awo abanzi ngakumbi kunomGaqo-siseko wesizwe, njengamalungelo emfundo okanye ilungelo lokuhlala kwindawo ecocekile. Aba “Bagwetyiweyo” banokukhusela okuhlala nomgangatho othe nkqo othe nkqo.

UbuFrentshi Obuthe Tyaba Nempikiswano Yentlalo Ethe Tyaba

Uthelekiso lukwachaphazela ulwalamano oluthe tyaba phakathi kwamazwana. Xa omnye urhulumente emisela umthetho owisela umthetho ngokusemthethweni, abemi bangabalekela kwelinye ilizwe. Umzekelo, emva McDonald, abanini-mipu abasuka kumaphondo angqongqo njengoIllinois acelcing imithetho eqhutywayo, kodwa baphinde bashukunyiselwe ukuchaza ngokuvula irela ngemithetho. Imfundiso yeNkundla Ephakamileyo kaNondyezo . Ngamanye amaxesha isithintela iClassiste Claus ithintelas ihambo engaphandle kwemidaba yabo. Noko ke, iNkundla epheleleyo ayikathethi ukuba isebenzisana njani nayiphi indlela yokuhamba kunye nokukhetha imithetho ephakathi.

Isiphelo

Iinkundla zizimisele ukuxhasa isithembiso soMgaqo-siseko sokukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye ngoxa uhlonela ulawulo lwamazwe. Ukudityaniswa kuyindlela yomthetho echaza umgangatho wokhuseleko ngaphantsi apho kungekho mbuso unokuthi utshone khona. Kodwa umgangatho awungosilingi: unika ukhuseleko olungakumbi, kwaye ugcina ubuchule obuthe ngqo bokulawula kwiindawo ezingagqunywanga ngamalungelo omntu ngamnye. Imfundiso yokulinganisela ifuna ingqalelo enonophelweni, kumbhalo, imizekelo, kunye nezinto ezisebenzayo zolawulo. Njengobugcisa obutsha, imibutho yentlalo, neengcamango ezingokwasemthethweni, iNkuNkundla ePhakalulekileyo iya kuqhubeka icoca imida phakathi kwegunya lorhulumente namalungelo omgaqo-siseko. Kuba ngoku imfundiso yokulawula ihlala ihleli isakhiwo esihlazinzileyo, kwaye idityaniswa komnye umzekelo omtsha kwimeko yelizwe lolawulo lwelizwe laseMelika.

Ukufunda okubhekele phaya, bona [ Iqumrhu Lolwazi Lomthetho inqaku elikuququzelelwa, [[FLT:][FLT]] [[FLT]] OYEZ[FLT]] [FLT]] [2] ingqokelela yamatyala aphezulu enkundleni, [FLT][FLT][FLT]]