Ukwazisa: UmGaqo-siseko njengoxwebhu oluphilayo lokulingana

UMgaqo-siseko weUnited States, owagunyaziswa ngo-1788, ungaphezulu nje kweplani emileyo karhulumente `ixwebhu oluphilayo olunokutolikwa nokulungiswa kwalo luye lwayandisa ngokuthe ngcembe imida yokulingana kwesizwe nabesini. Ngokuyekelela okuthi kwabangela ubukhoboka bokupheliswa kolu manyano, ukuphelisa olo manyano nokunika i-suffgence, umGaqo-siseko ube ngumqobo kunye nenqwelo-mafutha yamalungelo abantu. Ukuqonda le ndaleko kubalulekile kubafundisi, kubafundi, nabemi abafuna ukuqonda indlela umthetho wesiseko oqhubekeka ngayo umzabalazo wokusesikweni. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa umongo wembali, ukupheliswa kwemithetho ephakamileyo, ulawulo oluphakamileyo lweNkulawula, kunye nengxoxo yexesha eliqhelekileyo echaza indima yemiGathonga yobuhlanga nakulinganayo.

Imbali: Umseki Wohlanga Nowesizwe

Abalayishi bomGaqo-siseko benza uxwebhu ngexesha lobukhoboka obusemthethweni nobuqoqosho. Amazwe aseMazantsi anyanzelisa ukuba akhusele isiko, nto leyo eyakhokelela kumalungiselelo aliqela awayiphazamisa ngqo ingcamango yokulingana kwehlabathi lonke. Amabhinqa, ngeli xesha, akhutshwa kakhulu ekungeneleni kwezobupolitika, kwaye abantu belizwe lasekuhlaleni bathathwa njengabalawuli abahlukeneyo ngaphandle komgaqo-siseko.

Ama-Fenth Athathu Ayekelelayo Norhwebo Lwamakhoboka

Inqaku I, Icandelo 2, Claus 3 – elisaziwa ngokuba liThathu-Finths Ukuyekelela, / libalelwe kubantu abangamakhoboka njengesithathu sesithathu senjongo yomelo nerhafu. Eli lungiselelo lanika amazwe aseMazantsi amandla angenakulinganiswa ezobupolitika ngeli lixa ekhanyela abantu abakhotyokisiweyo naliphi na ilungelo. Ngaphezu koko, Icandelo Icandelo 9 lalela ukuvalwa komthetho wokurhwebela abantu abakhotyokiswa de kube ngo-188.

Imeko Yabafazi KumGaqo-siseko Wantlandlolo

UmGaqo-siseko wantlandlolo wawungenaso iso sikhuseli esicacileyo samalungelo amabhinqa. Imfundiso yomthetho eqhelekileyo yokufihla ityala, ekhutshwe eNgilani, yangaphantsi kwegunya lamabhinqa atshatileyo phantsi kwamadoda awo. Abafazi babengenakuvota, babenokuphatha isikhundla, okanye basebenze kwiijaji. Ukungathethi kwaloo mGaqo-siseko ngokwesini kwazishiya ngokunempumelelo ezi zisemthethweni, apho zahlala zingadinwa ngaphezu kwenkulungwane.

Ukuphangwa KwamaMerika Omthonyama

IGatya I, iCandelo lesi-2 labala ukuba “amaIndiya awahlawulwanga irhafu” njengahlukeneyo nabemi jikelele, ngaphandle kokuba amele. UmGaqo-siseko wawuziphatha izizwe zamaMelika Omthonyama njengamazwe asemzini ukuze zifeze iinjongo zesivumelwano, hayi njengenxalenye yomzimba. Oku kucaphula kwamisela iqondo lokugxothwa nokubekwa komthetho.

Ukuhlaziywa Kohlaziyo: Ukuzalwa Okutsha Kwenkululeko

Imfazwe yamakhaya kunye neziphumo zayo zabangela utshintsho olubalulekileyo lwemGaqo-siseko olunxulumene nokulingana kweentlanga. Uhlaziyo lweshumi elinesithathu, lweshumi elinesine nolweshumi elinesihlanu oluziwa ngokutsha njengoHlaziyo lokuHlaziya-guqulwa koMda-mva-mda ./Iyinjongo yokuphelisa ubukhoboka, ukumisela ubumi bobuzibulo, nokukhusela amalungelo okuvota kumadoda aNsundu. Oku kulungisa ngokusisiseko kwabuguqula ulwalamano phakathi korhulumente kunye namalungelo omntu ngamnye.

IsiHlanzi seshumi elinesithathu (1865)

Emva kwemfazwe yamakhaya, iSichibiyelo seshumi elinesithathu saphelisa ubukhoboka kunye nobukhoboka obungavumelekanga, ngaphandle kwesohlwayo solwaphulo-mthetho. “Ibinzana elingaphandle” liye laphikiswa, njengoko lavumela amazwe ukuba asebenzise ukuvalelwa kwetyala kwaye, kamva, ukuvalelwa kwabantu abaninzi ukuqhubekisela phambili ulawulo lobuhlanga. Phezu kwayo nje le ngxaki, ukupheliswa kwaphawula umthetho wokuqala ocacileyo wokwahlula uhlanga. Ukujongwa ngokunzulu kokubuyiselwa kombhalo nembali, kujonga kumaZibonelo ohlanga.

ISindululo Seshumi Elinane (1868)

Ngokungathandabuzekiyo iSinyuselo seshumi elinesine silelona lungiselelo libalulekileyo lomGaqo-siseko lokulingana. ISihlalo saso uClaus sanika bonke abantu abazelwe okanye abadaliweyo eUnited States, ukubhukuqa isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo iScott. I-Unime Protection Clausle iyalela ukukhanyela nawuphi na umntu onegunya labo “ukukhuselwa ngokulinganayo kwemithetho.” Lo mbhalo ube sisiseko samalungelo angundoqo asekuhlaleni, ukususela ekuncipheni kwesikolo ukuya ekulinganani nomtshato. I-Unity Procession Claus, adentie, ithetha ukuba isetyenziswe ukudibanisa amalungelo angundoqo nxamnye namazwe, kuquka nokuzimela.

Imida Nenkcazelo Yangaphambili

Phezu kwalo nje ulwimi lwayo olubanzi, uHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine lwachazwa kancinci yiNkundla ePhakamileyo kangangamashumi eminyaka. Ityala lobuHlahlelo-Indlu (1873], iNkundla yalunciphisa kakhulu ulungiso, kwaye [ku- Pnety v v. Ferguson [1866], yaphakamisa i-cala lobuhlanga phantsi “kwemfundiso elinganayo. Iyakuthatha phantse inkulungwane yokulungisa ukufikelela kweSikhuseli sokhuseleko esipheleleyo ukulindiswa ngokupheleleyo.

UMthetho - ngqangi We - 15 (1870)

UHlomelo lweshumi elinesihlanu loMphetho-mthetho lwalela oorhulumente bakarhulumente norhulumente ukuba bangavumi ukuvota ummi ngelungelo lokuvota “uhlanga, umbala, okanye imeko yobukhoboka ngaphambili.” Ngoxa impumelelo ephawulekayo, ukubuyiselwa kwemali yayingaqinisekisanga ukuba ikhokelelwa ngokubanzi kwehlabathi lonke, ukuvavanywa kwerhafu, ukubhatalwa kwabafundi, kunye namanye amanyathelo okukhupha imvume. Abafazi, kungakhathaliseki ukuba loluphi uhlanga, bahlala besusiwe. Ukupheliswa kwale meko kwabangelwa kukupheliswa komvolo olunolwa ngogonyamelo kunye nomthetho we-chicanemy, nto leyo eyakhokelela ekubeni kubekho inkulungwane yokunyanzeleka kwerhafuthelo, uvavanyo lokufunda nokubhala.

Ukuhlaziywa Kwesi - 19 Nokulwela Ukulingana Kwabantu Abangabantu Abangabantu Abangengobantu

Umlo wokulwela amabhinqa uqalisile kudala ngaphambi kwemfazwe yamakhaya kodwa waphumelela. UMthetho ohlaziyiweyo weshumi elinesithoba, owagunyaziswa ngo-1920, ekugqibeleni wakwalela imiqathango yokuvota esekelwe kwisondo. Isigwebo sokulungisa umbhalo (ukulungisa) sodwa (ukuthatha amashumi eminyaka esenzo sobuProjekthi, ukuvalelwa entolongweni, nokuncama ilahleko okwabangela ukuba kube nokwenzeka. Iinkokeli ezifana noSusan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, noAlice Paul zalungiselela imirhumo yokubheda, amathetho, kunye nokuhlasela kwendlala kwiBhunga-Rhulumente kunye nemithetho yowiso-mthetho.

Impembelelo Nemida YoMthetho We - 19

UHlomelo lweshumi elinesithoba lwaseMerika lwabangela ukuba izigidi zamabhinqa zihlawulwe, kodwa aluzange luphelise ucalucalulo ngezantlobano zesini kumthetho okanye kwibutho labantu. Amabhinqa ayesajongene nemiqathango engokwamalungelo empahla, umsebenzi, kunye nokuzimela ngokwawo ukuzala. Ngaphezu koko, amabhinqa amaninzi anemibala emibala emininzi (ngokukodwa amaMelika, amaMelika, kunye nama-Afrika athe ) aqhubeka ejamelene nemiqobo yokuvota ngenxa yemiqathango yokungavumelani ngenxa yeminye imithetho. Ukupheliswa kokungalawuleki komthetho yezomthetho kwakulinyathelo elibalulekileyo, kodwa yayikuphela kwesiqalo sohambo olude ukuya kumgangatho olinganayo.

UMthetho Ongagunyaziswanga Wamalungelo: Ingxoxo Eqhubekayo

Kuqala okwenziwe ngo1923, i-Aumencial Rights Amereka (ERA) iqinisekisa ngokucacileyo ukuba amalungelo alinganayo asemthethweni kubo bonke abantu baseMerika kungakhathaliseki ukuba banesini esinjani. Ukulungisa kwadlula iKhontekoste ngo1972 kodwa kwawa kumaphondo amathathu angenayo ukudityaniswa ngexesha lonyaka ka1982. Kwiminyaka yakutshanje, iNevada, i-Illinois, neVirginia iye yayigunyazisa iERA, iphakamisa imibuzo yokuba ummiselo wexesha lokusebenza ungaphinda uvuselelwe na. Ingxoxo eqhubekayo ibalasemgangathweni lomthetho onzulu phezu komcimbiso wesilinganayo. Abameli baphikisa ukuba iERA imfuneko yokunikezela kwesiseko esiqinileyo se-discriniant, ngoxa abachani besithi isindululo seshumi elinesine sowe ngokuchazwa kolu hlobo [FLD: 0] v[FT] kunye ne-FFOR.[2] [2]

Iingcaciso ZeNkundla Ephakamileyo: Ukwandisa Intsingiselo Yomgangatho

INkundla Ephakamileyo iye yanendima ephambili ekutolikeni ukulingana komGaqo-siseko. Ngothotho lwezigwebo eziphawulekayo, iNkundla iye yayiphelisa imithetho ehlab ’ umthetho nemilinganiselo ecacileyo yokuhlola imibandela yobuhlanga nocalucalulo ngokwesini.

Imithetho esekelwe kuhlanga

  • [FLT]BN v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954): Esi sigqibo sahlukeneyo savakalisa ucalulo lwesizwe kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke, ukuguqula [[FLT:]] Planet v. Ferguson. IJaji enkulu eBanzi i-Earl Warren Warren yabhala ukuba “amagumbi emfundo alinganayo,” iqinisekisa isithembiso sika-Claus weSikhuseli soKhuselo esiBanzi.
  • ukuphuma v. Virginia (1967): INkundla yalwa phantsi izithintelo zikarhulumente kumtshato weentlanga ngezizwe, ibambe loo miqathango esekelwe kuhlanga yawuphula wombini uKhuselo olulinganayo kunye noMsebenzi weNkqubo kaNombolo. Lo mthetho waphelisa ilifa lemithetho elwayo elwayo nolwenzekileyo ukususela kumaxesha e-macandelo.
  • Ityala liseke ukuba iiyantlukwano ngurhulumente onyanzelisayo, kodwa ugqatso lohlanga lumele lulungiswe ngokucutha. Isigqibo sicociwe ngamatyala alandelayo afana [[FLT:]]. [FLT]] Gritate v. Bollinger [[FLT:] [2003] [200] [5] ne [[FLT:] [3]
  • Selby County v. Umphetho weSithili (2013): Inkundla yalenza phucuka ilungiselelo elingundoqo loMthetho wamaLungelo oLongezo olufuna amazwe athile ukuze afumane imvume karhulumente phambi kokutshintsha imithetho yokuvota. Isigqibo sawuthoba phantsi umthetho wamalungelo abantu kwaye sakhokelela kwigalelo lemiqathango entsha yokuvota.

Umthetho osekelwe kwiGender

  • 'Iyakhethwa v. Ityala (1971]: okokuqala, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yasebenzisa i 145th Amendmentation ukubetha umthetho ocalulwe ngokukhethekileyo ngokweziziziqinisekiso zesini. Ityala lalibandakanya ukukhethwa kwamadoda njengabalawuli befakethi, kwaye iNkundla yathiya ukucalula umgangatho olinganayo wobufana nowe-Elenaus Classia.
  • [FLT][FLT]Craig v. Boren [1997]: INkundla yamisa “uphando oluphakathi". umgangatho wokuhlola icandelo elisekelwe kwisondo. Phantsi kolu vavanyo, imithetho ephatha amadoda namabhinqa ngokuchaseneyo kufuneka iqhube phambili umdla obalulekileyo karhulumente namhlanje.
  • [FLT] United States v. Virginia (1996): INkundla yagqiba kwelokuba iNkundla yoMkhosi waMadoda wesiGqeqeshi sobuGqeba yakwamkelwa kuphela yayisawuchaphazele inkqubo yoKhuselo lwe-Linganiso luka-Claus. Esi sigqibo sasebenzisa “ulungiso olunamandla” olufunekayo, ngokunempumelelo oluqinisiweyo, ukulinganisa umgangatho wokuhlola ophakathi.
  • .[FLT] R [77] ne[FLT]] Dobts v. Jackson Amabhinqa's Health Organization[ [2022]: ngexa kubekwe kumalungelo e-mfihlo, [ [[FLT]] i-Roe[ ineziphumo ezinzulu zobufanayo ngokukhusela i-equamo. [[FLT:]] [[FLT]] Isigqibo , esipheliswe ngokweejogo [[FLT:] [FLP]] [FLT: 11] [FLD], i-empt ye-Genetic, i-Genetic, iphethe malunga ne-Genetic.

Iimbambano Zangoku Neempikiswano Eziqhubekayo

Phezu kwayo nje inkqubela yomGaqo-siseko, imibutho yakutshanje neengxabano ezingokwasemthethweni ityhila imiqobo ehlala ikho phakathi kwemibhalo ebhaliweyo neyobunyani.

Ucalucalulo olusetyenziswayo kunye neNkqutyana eMnyama enoMcimbi woBuntu

Iqaliswe ngo-2013, umbutho weBlack Lives Matter unike ingqalelo ehlaziyiweyo kwinkohlakalo, ukubanjwa kwabantu abaninzi kunye nobuhlanga. Le nkqubo ifuna utshintsho olungaphaya kolungiso lokwenziwa kwakhona komthetho, kuquka utshintsho kwimiqathango efanelekileyo, ibheyile, kunye nemithetho yokugweba. Le mibuzo yomgaqo-siseko yaphakama ngezantsi ngokusetyenziswa kwenkohlakalo nesohlwayo esingaqhelekanga se-Angth Dempletemment neso sikhuselwayo ekuphangweni okungekho ngqiqweqweni nokukhutshwa kwe-phaza.

Iintsana Ezizalwa Ngamaqela Ziyavuzwa Yaye Zilingana Emsebenzini

Phezu kwawo nje uMthetho woMgaqo-nkqubo wonyaka ka-1963 kunye noMthetho weSihloko we-VII woMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1964, amabhinqa asafumana ngokomlinganiselo, malunga nee-25% zemali nganye efunyenwe ngamadoda. Lo msantsa umbi kakhulu kumabhinqa anemibala. Umgaqo-siseko uquka iimpikiswano phantsi koKhuselo olulinganayo luka-Clausle kunye nemigudu eqhubekayo yemithetho efana nePacharck Fairners Act ka-2009. Ukulawula kweNkusebenza phakathi kotoliko lwe-mthetho nolwe-Romati. [FLD]

Ulwalamano: Ukuqonda ucalucalulo olumanyeneyo

Ingcamango yokudibana kwemida, eqanjwe ngumphengululi wezomthetho uKimberlé Crenshaw, iyavuma ukuba abantu bacalucalulwe ngokusekelwe kwi-oyile, kwi-oyile-yonke. Umfazi oNsundu, umzekelo, usenokucalucalulwa, okungekhona kwesizwe okanye ubufana kodwa kudityaniswe kuzo zombini. Umthetho wezomGaqo-siseko awukhange ucothe ukuphendula amatyala; iinkundla ezininzi zifuna ukuba abantu bakhethe phakathi kohlanga nangokwesini njengesiseko sokumangalelwa kwabo.

Ukuncomela Amalungelo Ngenkulungwane Yama - 21

Emva kwesigqibo se-Shelby County, amazwe amaninzi amisela imithetho ye-ID yevoti, acoca iirolo, kwaye avale iindawo zokuvota ngendlela ezichaphazela ngokungenakuthelekiswa nanto iintlanga ezincinane. Imithetho yeLungu (H.R. 1) kunye neJohn Lewis Voting Rights Adrivement Act icetyiswe ukubuyisela nokomeleza ukhuseleko lwamazwe. Le ngxoxo igxininisa ukusetyenziswa okuqhubekayo koMgaqo-siseko weshumi elinesihlanu kunye nemfuneko yokugcinwa kolawulo oluconono lwe-voti.

Isihloko IX nomgangatho wesizwe semfundo

Nangona ingelolungiselelo lomgaqo-siseko, iSihloko seSihlaziyo semfundo sowe-1971 siye saba sisixhobo esinamandla sokulingana kwamadoda namabhinqa kumaqumrhu emfundo axhaswa ngemali ngurhulumente. Silwalela ucalucalulo olusekelwe kwiintlawulo zemfundo nakwimisebenzi, nto leyo ekhokelela kumathuba angakumbi kumabhinqa akwimidlalo, amabala e-STEM, nokukhuselwa kokukhathazwa ngokwesini. Amadabi asemthethweni ayaqhubeka ngokulingana kweSihlo se-IX, ingakumbi ngokuphathelele ukuba nenxaxheba kwabafundi kwimidlalo nakwii-transformder.

Isiphelo: Umsebenzi Ongagqitywanga Wokulingana

Uhambo loMgaqo-siseko osuka kuxwebhu oluvumela ubukhoboka obungapheleliyo kolukhusela ucalucalulo olusekelwe kuhlanga nakwisini sisivumelwano sokulungisa nokutolika. Ulungiso lweNkundla ePhakamileyo lweSikhathi, kunye nezigqibo zeNkundla eziPhakamileyo ezincomekayo, zinyuse isangqa sabo banelungelo lokulingana. Kodwa umsebenzi awuphelelanga ngokupheleleyo. Ukusilela ukuxhasa iSindululo samaLungelo esiBanzi, ukunyathelana kwemidabi yesizwe ekuvoteleni, ukugweba kolwaphulo-mthetho, nethuba lezoqoqosho, kunye nengxoxo eqhubekayo emalunga amalungelo adluliselwe phambili kunye nenkquluko yemithetho epheleleyo ibonisa ukuba ukulingana komgaqo-siseko kunamandla, iprojectries nabafundi kufuneka baqhubeke besenza ngokuqatha ngokusesikweni ngombhalo womGaqo-siseko, imbali, kunye nokuqinisekisa ukuba isithembiso sokulingana kwabo bonke abantu.

ukuqhubekeka kokufunda, ukuqwalasela umbhalo opheleleyo womGaqo-siseko kunye nezindululo zawo kwi yoovimba bohlanga, kunye nokuhlola amatyala entengiselwano eNkundla ePhakamileyo angomalungelo abantu kwiprojekthi [FLT]].