Imvelaphi Yokwahlukana Kwamagunya

Umgaqo wokwahlula igunya likarhulumente libe ngamasebe ahlukeneyo awuqalanga kuMaMerika abaQaphi boMqulu. Umbhali-mbali wamandulo ongumGrike uPolybius wachaza umgaqo-siseko oxubeneyo kwiRiphabliki yamaRoma, kodwa ingcamango yale mihla ivela kumntu osisithandi sobulumko waseFransi uBaron de Montesquieu. Kumsebenzi wakhe wewaka elingu-1748 Umoya woMthetho [[FLT] [[FLT]] [1], iMontesquieuk [1], apho ukumkani osembindi nepalame wayedla ngokungeneyo engeneyo ekungeneni kwelungelo lokulawula. [Foctivel] [Foctiver, kunye namandla okulawula amatyala ahlukeneyo]. [Foctive [2] [2] [43], uJames E.G.S.G.ide, uG.A.S. uG.

INdibano yezomGaqo-siseko yowe-1787 yaphikisana ngesakhiwo esingqalileyo samasebe. ISicwangciso sesizwe esinamandla esinamasebe ahlukeneyo, ngoxa iNew Jersey Plan yakhetha inkqubo karhulumente ebuthathaka. Ulalanisa ekugqibeleni kwadala indlu yowiso-mthetho ye-bidamaral, umphathi omnye, kunye ne-jaji yephondo elizimeleyo. Ukwahlukana kwakungekokugqibelele; izahlulo ezakhelwe ngokwahlula kunye nokulungelelanisa ukunqanda ukuba libe ligunya. Oku kubandakanya amasebe (ngokomzekelo, i-veto ekwasemthethweni, i-degreass kwisebe eliqinisekisa abagwebi) kungumsebenzi ongundoqo wenkqubo. Namhlanje, ukwahlulwa kwamagunya kuseyimfundiso ephilayo, etoliwe ziinkundla yaye kuqheliswe ziinkokeli nganye.

Isebe Elisemthethweni: Inqaku I

IGatya 1 ibeka onke amagunya owiso-mthetho kwiNgqungquthela, equka iNdlu yabameli neNdlu yeeNtlanganiso. ICandelo I, Icandelo 1 lithi: "Onke Amagunya eMigaqo-siseko agunya anikwe apha aza kubekwa kwiKhonkqele yaseUnited States, eya kuba yiNdlu yeeNdlu neNdlu yabameli." Eli linqaku lokuqala nelona linenkcukacha ezibanzi, elibonisa inkolelo yabaLakheli-Frames ukuba iyakuba yelona sebe linamandla neliyingozi kakhulu. Ngokwahlula iBhunga libe ngamagumbi amabini, umGaqo-siseko uqinisekisa ukuba ukubekwa komthetho kufuna ukuvumelana okuphangalele.

Indlu Yabameli: Indlu Yabantu

Indlu yenzelwe ukuba iphendule ngokuthe ngqo kubemi. Amalungu akhonza amabinzana eminyaka emibini, awanyanzelisayo ukuba ajongene nabavoti rhoqo. Umelo lusekelwe kubemi bakarhulumente, lunika amaphondo amakhulu impembelelo kwiNdlu. UmGaqo-siseko unika iNdlu amandla okusungula iindleko zemali, uvavanyo oluphambili kubaphathi-magxamesi kunye neBhunga. Indlu ikwanawo namandla okungagunyazi, okuthiwa imele umongameli, umongameli, okanye abanye abaphathi-orhulumente abano "Treaksign, okanye iSifumba, okanye abanye abaphezulu be-Crimes kunye nabaPhakamisi abaphezulu." Eli gunya lisuka kumsebenzi wamaNgesi wokungaqeshwa kwaye liqukiwe ukuba libambe isigqeqesho.

Ngokwembali, iNdlu ibisoloko iphambili kwingxoxo engobukho berhafu, ukusetyenziswa kwemali, kunye nenkqubo yentlalo. Ukusetyenziswa kwendlu okufutshane kwenza ukuba ifumaneke lula kwiimbono zikawonke-wonke, nto leyo enokuthi ikhokelele ekutshintsheni ngokukhawuleza kwemigaqo-nkqubo. Noko ke, umjikelo weminyaka emibini ukwathetha ukuba amalungu eNdlu asoloko exhathisa, nto leyo egxekwa ngokucutha ulawulo lwexesha elide. Nangona kunjalo, le ndlu iselunxibelelwano oluthe ngqo phakathi kwabemi norhulumente.

IBhunga: Intloko Epholileyo

IBhunga leNtsimbi lamiselwa njengequmrhu elikhuselweyo, elikhuselwe kwiminqweno ethandwayo. Abaququzeleli basebenzisa amabinzana aneminyaka emithandathu, ne-3 kuphela kunyulo nyaka ngamnye. Urhulumente ngamnye, kungakhathaliseki ubungakanani, unee-metator ezimbini ezikhusela amazwe amancinane. IBhunga linamagunya amaninzi akhethekileyo: liqinisekisa ukumiswa komongameli (amalungu, abagwebi, ii-amirari), izivumelwano ngevoti ezimbini, kwaye lisebenza njengenkundla yetyala lokungaquququzeli. La mandla anika iNxatle yokulungisa amasebe olawulo kunye namasebe ejaji.

Icebiso leNdlu yeNdlu yeeNtsimbi yeMikhosi yeNtlanganiso liyindawo ephambili kwezobupolitika zale mihla. Oomongameli basoloko bejamelene namadabi anzima okuqinisekisa, ingakumbi kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo. IBhunga likwanokuvala izivumelwano, ifuna ukuba umongameli athethe nento enkulu. I-Recinelbuster, nangona ingesiso isixhobo sobugcisa kudala, iye yaba sisixhobo esingundoqo senkqenkqeza phambili kwiBhani, ivumela iqana elincinane ukuba lilibazise okanye lithintele umthetho. Oku kugxininisa indlela okwahlula amagunya okungadibani nanto; kuvela ngesithethe nangomthetho.

Amandla Oongqungquthela Angaphaya Kokwenza Umthetho

Igunya leKhongosare lidlulela ngaphaya kwemithetho yokubhalwa. Ilawula isipaji sorhulumente ngamandla esingxowa-mali − yonke imali nerhafu kufuneka ivele kwiBhunga. Oku kunika iCongress amandla amakhulu phezu kwesebe eliphetheyo. IBhunga likwanamandla okuvakalisa imfazwe, nangona oomongameli besoloko besebenzisa umkhosi ngaphandle kwemiyalelo esemthethweni. UMgaqo-siseko unika iBhunga igunya lokuba "lokulungiselela ukuLawula nokuNxiba okuqhelekileyo, okuye kwatolikwa ngokubanzi ukuvumela iinkqubo zolawulo zorhulumente ukuba ziphumele kwimibutho yezempilo.

Ukujonga kweKhomishini yeNkxaso yeNkxaso yeNkxaso yeNtlalo-ntle yeNtshona Koloni yenye indlela enzima yokuhlola. IiKomiti ziphanda izenzo zolawulo, amangqina, kunye namaxwebhu okufuna imvume. Olu phengululo lungatyhila ububi, ukubumba uluvo lukawonke-wonke, kwaye lukhokelele kwiinguqu zemithetho-siseko. Imizekelo yakutshanje iquka ukuva ii-platfomu zonxibelelwano, iindyikitya, kunye nolawulo lwemali. Amandla okuvelela awadweliswanga ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko kodwa aboniswa ngegalelo eliyimfuneko nelifanelekileyo (I, Icandelo 8, u-Celauaste 18).

Isebe ElinoLawulo Oluphezulu: Inqaku II

Inqaku II elimisela ubungangampu kwaye lichaza amandla olawulo oluphezulu. Izahlulo zokuqala zesigwebo "Amagunya alawulayo" kuMongameli, ngokwahlukileyo kuludwe lwamandla achazayo. Oku kuye kwakhokelela kwingxoxo eqhubekayo ngobungakanani begunya lomongameli. Abalawuli babesoyika ulawulo lolawulo kodwa baqonda imfuneko yokuba umlawuli onamandla, onamandla anyanzelise imithetho, aqhube inkqubo yangaphandle, amyale umkhosi. I-Electoral College yadalwa ukuba ikhethe umongameli, ulawulo kunye nempembelelo ethandwayo.

Amandla KaMongameli

Umongameli usebenza njengenkokeli eyintloko, umphathi-mikhosi eyintloko yemikhosi exhobileyo, umlawuli oyintloko, kunye nentloko yesizwe. UmGaqo-siseko unika umongameli igunya lomthetho weveto, umisele amagosa (ngokuqinisekiswa kweNdlu yeeNdlu zecawa), enze izivumelwano (ngecebiso nemvume yeNdlu yeeNtlanganiso), kwaye axolele izono zikarhulumente. Kwakhona umongameli umele "Unyamekele ukuba uMthetho ubulawe ngokuthembeka," nto leyo ethetha ukuba kumele kuqwalaselwe izinto eziza kuqala.

Kwimicimbi yamanye amazwe, umongameli ngumphathi-mikhosi oyintloko. INkundla ePhakamileyo iqaphele igunya elimiselwe ngumongameli kwiinkqubo zasemzini, ingakumbi kwimimandla efana nokhuseleko nolawulo lwesizwe kunye nolawulo. Umzekelo, kwi- United States v.Curtiess-Wright Ervenport. [1936], iNkundla ithenjiwe ukuba umongameli lilungu lorhulumente worhulumente wolawulo kwingingqi yelizwe lolwalamano lwezizwe ngezizwe ngezizwe. Ngoko ke, eli gunya alingommiselo; iBhunga linokumisela inyathelo lolawulo oluphezulu ngemithetho, ukunqumla, okanye ukuhambelana kwezivumelwano.

Ikhangela kumandla olawulo

UmGaqo-siseko unika iingqikelelo ezininzi kumongameli. IBhunga lingayikhupha iveto ngobuninzi obubini obuzii-3 emagumbini omabini. IBhunga kufuneka liqinisekise ukumiswa okukhulu kunye nezivumelwano. Ingqungquthela inegunya lokungagunyazi nokususwa; iNdlu yabagwebi, kunye neNdlu yeCante yamabanjwa ngevoti ezimbini ezithathu. Koomongameli ababini kuphela abathe abanjiswa yiNdlu (Andrew Johnson, uBill Clinton, kunye noDonald Trump) kabini, kodwa akukho namnye owagwetywa yiNdlu.

Ijaji ikwahlola umphathi ngokuhlola kwetyala. Iinkundla zingabetha imiyalelo yabalawuli, imimiselo, kunye nezenzo ezichasene nomthetho womgaqo-siseko. Iimeko zophawu lwelizwe ezifana nabaselula iStown Sheep & Tube Co. v. Sawyer [1952] amandla alinganiselweyo omongameli xa uMongameli Truman wabamba izinyithi zentsimbi ngexesha lemfazwe yaseKorea. Inkundla yabambelela kwisenzo somongameli somGaqo-siseko ngenxa yokuba iBhunga aligunyazisangagunyaziswanga. Le meko ihlala iyimizekelo engundoqo echaza imiqathango yamandla olawulo oluphezulu ngexesha longxamiseko.

Igunya Elandayo

Ekuhambeni kwexesha, isebe eliphetheyo liye lakhula kakhulu kwaye lanempembelelo. Umongameli wale mihla ulawula isebe elikhulu lamasebe kunye namaqumrhu alawula imithetho. Oomongameli baye basebenzisa ngokukhulayo imiyalelo yegunya, imemorrada, kunye nezibhengezo zokumisela inkqubo ngaphandle komthetho. Oku kuye kwaphakamisa inkxalabo ngokukhukuliseka kwamagunya, njengoko abanye bephikisa ukuba umlawuli onegunya uyakwazi ukuqhuba izithuba. Inkundla ephakamileyo ityhafile emva kwezinye iindawo, umzekelo ku- Ibutho lesizwe le-Intelligence v. OSH[FLT:] [202] [20], njengoko isithiyelela umqathango ophakathi kolawulo olufanelekileyo nommiselo womgaqo-siseko.

Isebe Eligwebayo: Inqaku III

Inqaku III limisa ijaji yephondo, ekhokelwa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo. Ngokungafaniyo namanye amasebe, ijaji yayiyilelwe ukuba ibe yeyona ibuthathaka kakhulu, (*) ayinagunya phezu kwengxowa okanye ikrele. Igunya layo lixhomekeke ekusebenziseni igunya lengqiqo yayo nasekuthembekeni kwabantu. Abagwebi basebenzela ubomi ngexesha lokuziphatha okuhle, ekukhuselweni kwingcinezelo yezobupolitika.

Isakhiwo kunye noMthetho

UMgaqo-siseko udala iNkundla ePhakamileyo enye kwaye uvumela iNkundla ePhakamileyo ukuba imisele iinkundla ezisezantsi. Namhlanje, kukho iinkundla zesiphaluka ezili-13 zezibheno neenkundla zesithili ezingama- 94. INkundla ePhakamileyo inegunya lantlandlolo kwiimeko ezibandakanya amazwe nezigidi ezimanyeneyo, kodwa umsebenzi wayo omninzi ugunyazisa izicelo ezivela kwiinkundla ezisezantsi zikarhulumente kunye neenkundla eziphakamileyo zephondo. INkundla ikhetha ukuba ngamaphi amatyala okuva ngetyala e-certtiori, efuna ukuba ubuncinane amatyala amane avumelane avumelane avumelane alawula izibuko zayo zesikhululo-ofisi zephondo aphezulu nezolawulo agxininisa kwimibandela ebalulekileyo yomgaqo-siseko.

Impinda yezeejaji

Esona sixhobo sinamandla sejaji sigweba: amandla okuvakalisa imithetho okanye izenzo zolawulo ngokungekho mgaqweni. UmGaqo-siseko awuwaniki ngokucacileyo la mandla. Yasekwa yiNkundla Ephakamileyo kwi Marbury v. UMadison [1803]. ISigwebi esinguJohn Marshall saqiqabela ukuba ekubeni umGaqo-siseko ungumthetho ophakamileyo welizwe, nawuphi na umthetho ochasene nawo umele ungasebenzi, kwaye ngumsebenzi weNkugqibelela ukuthi yintoni umthetho. Oku kuwiswa kweNkuNkundla kwenza iqabane elilinganayo kulwahlulo lwamagunya. Umthetho uphengululo lwesizwe lusebenza kurhulumente kunye nemithetho yezolawulo.

Kwiinkulungwane, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yasebenzisa uhlolo lokuchonga ukubetha ucalulo ( Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo], 1954), ikhusela intetho yamahala ( Brandenburg v.Ohio[[FLT]], 1969]), kunye nomlinganiselo wokuvalelwa kwe-ofisi ([[FLT:]4]] HAmdi v. Rumsteld, 2004). Amandla akagwetyelwanga; iNkundla ibamba imicimbi yemicimbi, ingakumbi kwimicimbi yangaphandle kunye nokhuseleko lwesizwe. Imfundiso yokuma, ukuvutha, ukurhomba, nemida, nemida yezopoliti yezo yezopoliti.

Icudiary Njengeecheki

Ijaji ihlola amasebe owiso-mthetho kunye nesebe elilawulayo. Isenokuyiphelisa imithetho edluliswa yiBhunga kwaye ityikitywe ngumongameli. Kwakhona isenokuyalela izenzo zolawulo ezichasene namalungelo okanye ezigqitha igunya. Ngokuchasene noko, amanye amasebe ahlola ijaji: umongameli onamatyala, iBhunga eliqinisekisa ukuba, kwaye iBhunga linokuzithintela. IBhunga likwanokuguqula ulawulo lweenkundla ezisezantsi (kungekhona kulawulo lwantlalo lweNkundla ephakamileyo) kwaye limisela ukupheliswa kwemithetho yemithetho yezomthetho yokubhukuqaqa inkundla. Oku kuqinisekisa ukuba akukho komiti yesebe inegama lokugqibela kwintsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko.

Inkqubo yeepeyinti nolungelelwano

Ukwahlukana kwamandla kukodwa akuyi kuthintela ubuzwilakhe ukuba isebe ngalinye lisebenza ngokwalo. Inkcubeko yezomGaqo-siseko yinkqubo yokuhlola nokulungelelanisa enika isebe ngalinye iqondo lokulawula ezinye. UMadison wabhala ku Federalist No. 51: "Umgaqo mawenziwe ukulwa nephulo." Ngokunika isebe ngalinye iindlela zokuxhathisa ukungenelela, umGaqo-siseko udala inkqubo yokuzilawula.

Iingcebiso zoMthetho

IBhunga lingakugatya ukubekwa okanye ukugatya ukubekwa kwe-apresidenti, ukugatya okanye ukugatya ukumiswa, izivumelwano ze-rafy, ukutyunjwa nokususwa komongameli namanye amagosa, ukulawulwa kwemali, kunye nokuphanda izenzo zolawulo. Amandla esi singxobo anamandla kakhulu. ISibonelelo semali sinamandla.

Icandelo Elilawulayo Lihlola Umthetho

Umongameli angawubeka umthetho weveto, abize iKhonkethi kwintlanganiso ekhethekileyo, kwaye ancomele amanyathelo. Iveto luvavanyo olunamandla olungalunganga; uninzi oluzii-3 ezimbini lufuneka ukuba luwulawule, okunqabile. Umongameli ukwanamandla okuquluqela iiKhomishini, ezinokubanyanzela ukuba bacombulule iingozi. Ngaphezu koko, umongameli angasebenzisa imiyalelo yegunya ukukhokela imithetho esetyenziswayo, ngamanye amaxesha adala inkqubo engenakuphunyezwa yiBhunga.

Ukuxilonga Amasebe Ooaval

Imithetho yejaji kunye nezenzo zolawulo ezilawulayo zomgaqo-siseko. Ichaza imimiselo, icombulula iinjongo zomthetho ngendlela enokunwenwa okanye ibekelwe umda. Iinkundla zingakhupha imimiselo ethintelayo ukugcinwa kwemithetho okanye imiyalelo yezolawulo. Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo zibophelelekile kuzo zonke iinkundla ezisezantsi namagosa asemthethweni, kuphela ngokumiswa komgaqo-siseko okanye ngokugqwethwa kweNkundla.

Iingxaki Zezobupolitika Nezothule

Ngaphandle komgaqo-siseko osemthethweni, kukho iingqikelelo zobupolitika. Uluvo lukawonke-wonke, uphando lwenkqubo yosasazo, amaqela enzala, kunye nonyulo konke kuyanyanzeliswa kumasebe. Umongameli ophangaleleyo angajongana nomthetho ophindiweyo okanye aphulukane nonyulo. IBhunga elidlulisela imithetho engathandwayo lingavotelwa. Ijaji ixhomekeke ekuthembeni uluntu; ukuba iimbambano zeNkundla zithathwa njenge-edemocrality, ukufaneleka kwalo kusenokuchaphazanyiswa. Ukwahlulo lwamandla lungaphindwa kusebenza kumongo wolawulo-demokhrasi.

Iingxaki Zangaphambili Nenkqubo Yenkqubo Yemvelo

Ukwahlulwa kwamagunya kuye kwajamelana nocelomngeni olubalulekileyo kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje. Ulwahlulo lorhulumente luye lwazinza imigca egqwethekileyo phakathi kwamasebe. Amaqumrhu azimeleyo anjengeFederal Reserve kunye ne-EPA asebenzisa inkqubo yowiso-mthetho, impawu yegunya, kunye nemisebenzi yokugweba. IiNkundla ziye zaphuhlisa imfundiso engagunyaziswanga ukuze zimisele amandla eBhunga okudlulisela amandla owiso-mthetho kumaqumrhu, kodwa le mfundiso iye yasetyenziswa ngokungaguquguquki. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi- Virginia v. I-West Virginia v. [2022]) iphinda i-kad

Imiyalelo yegunya elilawulayo kunye nezenzo zomGaqo-siseko ezingomnye zixhaphakile. Oomongameli babo bobabini baye bakhupha imiyalelo engokufuduka, ukutshintsha kwemozulu, kunye nokusetyenziswa kwempilo. Ukusetyenziswa kweengxelo zokutyikitya ukuvavanya iinxalenye zomthetho kukwakhula. Le misebenzi ivavanya imida yegunya lomgaqo-siseko. IBhunga liye laphendula ngokuqhithiswa kwemiqathango kunokuba lisetyenziswe, linciphisa amandla alo.

Olunye ucelomngeni lukukwenza i-creatediation ingabinamsebenzi. Xa iqela elinye lilawula umongameli kunye neBhunga, ukwahlukana kwamandla kungadodobala njengoko iinkokeli zidityaniswa kunokuba zijongene. Ngokuchaseneyo, urhulumente owahluleleneyo ukhokelela ekuyekeni nasekudibaniseni nobuchule bokuhlala kunxweme. Abalawuli babelindele iminqweno yokukhangela iminqweno, kodwa ukuba iphulo lihambisana nokunyaniseka kweqela, inkqubo ingabangela uxinzelelo. Abanye abaphengululi baphikisa ngotshintsho olufana nolawulo olunamandla, imiqathangokwako kwimiyalelo yempatho, okanye ukuphinda bajonge iNtsimbizane yeNtlanganiso.

Ukuthelekisa kwezizwe ngezizwe kubonisa ukuba ukwahlulwa kwamandla ase-U.S. kuqinile ngakumbi kunenkqubo yepalamente, apho isebe eliphetheyo nendlu yowiso-mthetho idityanisiwe. KwiU.K., umphathi-nkulu lilungu lepalamente kwaye linokususwa yivoti engavunyelwanga. Ngokwahlukileyo, inkqubo ye-U.S. ifuna ukuphenjelelwa, okuyinkqubo enzima. Oku kusisingqindilili kunika uzinzo kodwa kunokubangela ingxaki ukuba amasebe akhanyele.

Isiphelo: Ukunyamezela Ukuthozama

Ukwahlulwa kwamagunya amiselwe ngumGaqo-siseko kuseyimbombo yolawulo lwamaMerika. Asilolungiselelo lobuchule kodwa ngumgaqo onamandla oguqula inkqubo ngokuqhelisa, ukutolika, ukutolika, kunye nemfazwe yezobupolitika. Ukuqonda indlela amanqaku I, II, kunye no II asasaza ngayo amandla nendlela uvavanyo nolungelelwaniso olusebenzayo luyimfuneko ngayo kubemi abasemthethweni. Inkqubo ikhusela inkululeko ngokuthintela naliphi na isebe ekulawuleni, kodwa lifuna ukuphaphaphapha. Njengoko uMadison walumkisa, "ukuxhomekeka kubantu, ngokungathandabuzeki, ukulawulwa okuyintloko korhulumente; kodwa amava afundise uluntu imfuneko yokuba lilumke ngokusisigxina. Ukwahlulo lwamandla kungoko ukuba ukhuseleko loncedo, kwaye luyaqhubeka ukubumba ulawulo lwedemokhrasi lwehlabathi.

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