Isiseko Somanyano LwamaMerika

Ulwahlulo lwegunya phakathi korhulumente wesizwe kunye namazwe luphawu oluchazayo lwenkqubo yezopolitiko yeUnited States. Olu lungiselelo, olwaziwa ngokuba yi-unistism, ludala ulawulo olumabini apho umgangatho ngamnye karhulumente unegunya lawo, icheke, kunye neembopheleleko. Ukuqonda olu lungelelwaniso luyimfuneko kungekuphela kubafundi bomthetho wezomgaqo-siseko kodwa nabani na ofuna ukuqonda indlela imigaqo yemfundo, ukhuseleko lwempilo, kunye nokhuseleko lukawonke-wonke wonke olumi. UmGaqo-siseko we-U.S., njengoko uchazwe kwiinkulungwane ezimbini zembali kunye ne-jurisprance, unika iplani yalo yolu lwalamano oluntsonko.

Ingcamango Yolongamo Olulinganayo

Ulawulo lwe-Dual luchaza inkqubo apho oorhulumente ababini abahlukeneyo benegunya kummandla omnye kunye nabemi. EUnited States, urhulumente wesizwe umi ngomlinganiselo, udweliso, ngoxa oorhulumente belawula, benolawulo olubanzi, oluphindiweyo. Eli lungiselelo lenzelwe ngabom, ukukhusela inkululeko ngokwahlula igunya nokuthintela nayiphi na ingqwalaselo engoyena mlawuli. Isiphumo sinegalelo elinamandla eliye laguquka ngokuphawulekayo ukususela ekusungulweni kwalo.

Imvelaphi Yembali: Ukusuka Kumthetho - siseko Ukuya Kutsho KumGaqo-siseko

Amava eefreyimi aphantsi kweNkqutyana (1781-1789) aqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente obuthathaka osembindini akanakukwazi ukulawula ngokuphumelelayo ukhuseleko lwesizwe, urhwebo, okanye ulwalamano lwamanye amazwe. IConvention yezomGaqo-siseko yowe-1787 yafuna ukudala urhulumente onamandla onamandla owendalo ngeli xesha igcina ukuzilawula kwamazwe. Isisombululo sasiyinkqubo yamandla ahlukeneyo nahlukeneyo. Isisombululo singu-"Sikhulu sinyeke-ezi-(ezinkulu (indlu zowiso-ma) kunye neMithetho-FOTP [3] u-FOKT] u-PFOKT.[3] urhulumente u-Aletteloverea, James Magded Disofickethis [ifkT], uGenethisovicelkt , urhulumente wesizwe, uG.[3]

UMgaqo-siseko ngokwawo wanika urhulumente (umz., ukuveliswa kwemali, ukulawulwa kwezorhwebo, ukubhengezwa kwemfazwe) kwaye wagcina onke amanye amazwe kumazwe. UHlaliso lweSihlalo lweshumi, lwagunyaziswa ngo-1791, lwaqinisekisa ngokucacileyo olu luhlu: “Amagunya awanikwanga iUnited States nguMgaqo-siseko, okanye awalelwanga nguwo eUnited States, agcinelwe eUnited States ngokwahlukeneyo, okanye abantu.” Oku kulungiswa komgaqo-siseko wolongamo lwesizwe.

Ulawulo olumanyeneyo oluqheliselwayo: Yinkqubo yabalawuli abahlukeneyo

Kumthetho womgaqo-siseko waseMerika, ibinzana elithi “ulawulo lomntu ngamnye” likwavela kwimeko yomthetho wesigebengu. Umzekelo we-Jeopardy Claus weSinyusi sesihlanu uthintela umntu ukuba avavanywe kabini ngenxa yetyala elinye ngumlawuli omnye. Noko ke, ngenxa yokuba urhulumente kunye norhulumente ngamnye ungoorhulumente owahlukeneyo, zombini zinokumangalela umntu ngesenzo esinye ukuba oko kuthabatha umthetho wesizwe nowasezwe. Umzekelo, ipolisa lamapolisa elisebenzisa amandla agqithiseleyo lingajongana namalungelo orhulumente afanayo kunye nokubulala ngaphandle kokufaka ityala ephindwe kabini. Le mfundiso iqinisekiswe yiNkuhlela ephakamileyo kwiimeko ezifana neyo. [[FLT: 0] i-Alasmask [FLD] [FLD] [1985]) kunye nenkqubo egxekayomthetho wolawulo lwe-mthetho wolawulo lorhulumente.

Amandla Omanyano: Anikwe, Asetyenziswa, Yaye Azalwa

Ukuqonda ezi ntlobo zithathu zegunya likarhulumente kuyimfuneko ukuze kufunyanwe imida yesenzo sohlanga.

Amandla Anempembelelo

Amandla aneziqu eziphambili ngalawo adweliswe ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko, ngokuyintloko kwiGatya I, iCandelo 8. Ezona zinto zibalulekileyo ziqukwayo:

  • Amandla ku irhafu kwaye ichithelwa intlalo-ntle jikelele.
  • Amandla ku [[FLT: 0] asebenza phakathi kwentlabathi kunye norhwebo lwangaphandle.
  • Amandla ku [[QUMT: 0] achaza imfazwe [[FLT: 1] kunye nokunyusa imikhosi.
  • Amandla kwimali [[UMTL: 0] eyi- kwaye alawula ixabiso layo.
  • Amandla okumisela iiofisi zeposi kunye neendlela.
  • Amandla okunika imvume nemvume yamalungelo ombhali.

La mandla, nangona elinganiselwe, atolikwa ngokuphangaleleyo. IChwethezi Claus, ngokukodwa, iye yaba yindawo yokulwa yokuchaza ukufikelela kwegunya likarhulumente. Ukusuka ku Gibbons v. Ogden [1824] [1824] ukuya ku[FLT] Wickard v. Filburn [1942] ku[FLT] United States v. Lopez [195]] [195]), iNkukhombo ine oslatedrived phakathi kolawulo nolukhulu.

Amandla Asetyenziswayo Nokubaluleka Nokufanelekileyo KukaClaus

Icandelo lokugqibela leGatya I, iCandelo lesi-8 linika iNkqutyana “yokwenza yonke imithetho ezakuba yimfuneko kwaye ifaneleke ekuphumezeni amagunya aphezulu.” Eli binzana, elaziwa ngokuba ngu-Fanelo noMfaneleko ka-Claus (okanye i-Ellastic Claus), livumela iNgqungquthela ukuba imisele imithetho egunyaziswe ngokusemthethweni ngamandla adwelisiweyo. Ityala elikwizigaba zolawulo liyi MCulloch v. Maryland [18], apho IJaji ephambili uJohn Marshall ichaza ngokuphakamileyo ukuba “amandla erhafu abandakanya amandla okutshabalalisa kunye nokusebenzisa urhulumente kunokuthi kungabi nako olucacileyo ukufikelela iinjongo zomgaqo-mthetho-siseko. Esi sigqibo sisungulwe kukuxhasa ukusekwa kwendalo kwe-Freast, ii-ocesters, kunye nezinye ii-oventi zolawulo zesizwe ezininzi zesizwe.

Amandla Emvelo

Amagunya emvelo ngalawo angawo naliphi na ilizwe elilawulayo, nokuba akakhankanywa ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko. La magunya anxulumene ngokuyintloko nemicimbi yamanye amazwe nokhuseleko lwesizwe, kuquka amandla okufumana umhlaba, unxibelelwano, kunye nokukhusela uhlanga. INkundla ePhakamileyo iwamkele amagunya emfuza kwiimeko ezifana neUnited States ye- v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp. [1936], eyayikholelwa ukuba urhulumente wesizwe “unamandla asuka kwinyani yokuba iUnited States iluhlanga olulawulayo phakathi kwezizwe.”

Amandla Karhulumente: Amaphepha Agciniweyo, Amapolisa Nawokuhambelana Kwawo

UHlaliso lweshumi leMithetho-siseko yi-ankile yegunya likarhulumente. Ngaphaya kwamagunya agciniweyo, amagunya asebenzisa amandla abanzi .

Imizekelo Yamagunya KaRhulumente Angokwesithethe

  • Imfundo: I-United States imisela imigangatho yokufundisa, izikolo zikawonke-wonke, kunye nokulawula isiqinisekiso sokufundisa.
  • Unikezelo: Amazwe akha aze agcine uhola weendlela, izithuthi ezibhaliswayo, kunye neelayisensi zokuqhuba.
  • Imali ephambili: yaseUnited States imvume yolwazi lwezamayeza, ulawulo lwezorhwebo ze-inshorensi, kunye nokusebenzisa iinkqubo ze-Medicaid.
  • Umthetho wosapho: ulawula umtshato, uqhawulo-mtshato, ilungelo lokugcina abantwana, kunye nokufumana umntwana omnye.
  • Umthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho ongundoqo uyenzeka phantsi komthetho karhulumente.
  • Unyulo:[ Ama- States anika unyulo lwezwe, lombuso, kunye nolwasekuhlaleni kwimida yomgaqo-siseko.

Amagunya Akhoyo: Agunya Okwabelana Ngawo

Oorhulumente borhulumente norhulumente bangawasebenzisa ngexesha elinye amandla athile. La mandla akhoyo aquka:

  • Amandla erhafu (amazwe akanakukwazi ukuhlawula irhafu kwizixhobo zamazwe asekuhlaleni ngaphandle kwemvume).
  • Amandla okuboleka imali.
  • Amandla okumisa iinkundla.
  • Amandla okuqesha iibhanki neenkampani.
  • Amandla okumisela nokunyanzelisa imithetho jikelele.

Xa imithetho karhulumente norhulumente ingquzulana, iSupremacy Claus (Article VI, Claus 2) ichaza ukuba umthetho karhulumente uyaphumelela. Le mfundiso ye inokuba sobala ( ichaza ngokucacileyo ukuba umthetho wesizwe uweyisa umthetho karhulumente) okanye ichazwe (xa umthetho karhulumente uphazamisana neenjongo zorhulumente okanye uthatha intsimi ngokupheleleyo).

UNondyebo Nokulukuhlwa Endleleni

ISupremacke imisa umGaqo-siseko, imithetho karhulumente yenza ukuba i-arhente kuwo, kunye nezivumelwano njengezo “Mthetho ophakamileyo weLizwe.” Oku akuwucimi umthetho wesizwe kodwa kuyawuthoba. Xa kuvela ingxabano, iinkundla kufuneka zigqibe enoba umthetho karhulumente uyakhululwa kusini na. INkundla ePhakamileyo ivelise izakhelo eziliqela:

  • Ucimo lwentelekelelo:[[FL:1] Congress ichaza injongo yayo yokukhulula umthetho womthetho kummiselo.
  • Isetyenziswa njengesiphelo: xa umthetho wengingqi ugqugqisile kangangokuba “ihlala kumhlaba,” ingashiyi ndawo yesenzo sombuso (ukuhlangulwa kwelizwe), okanye xa umthetho karhulumente umi njengomqobo kwiinjongo zolawulo kunye neenjongo (ukukhutshwa kwangaphambili).

Umzekelo obalaseleyo ngu Arizona v. United States (2020), apho iNkundla yawisa amalungiselelo amaninzi e-S.B. 1070 umthetho wokufuduka karhulumente ngenxa yokuba umthetho wengingqi wokufuduka wawuphethe ibala kwaye urhulumente ungqubana nomthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho obekelwe izithuba eziphambili. Ngokuphikisanayo, ku Wyeth v. Levine [2009], iNkutsho oko ithelekele ukuba imvume yegama elichazayo elingumthetho wesiyobisi elitshayekwa likhutshwe kumthetho we-cartivert, igxininisa into yokuba ukukhutshwa akunanto elula.

Umboniso wonobumba wovavanyo kwimpixano yesizwe

  • McCulloch v Maryland (1819): INkundla yathi uMaryland ayinakukwazi ukurhafisa iBhanki yesibini yeUnited States kuba “amandla erhafu abandakanya amandla okutshabalalisa,” kwaye amazwe akanakuphazamisana nemisebenzi yomthetho.
  • Gibbons v. Ogden (1824): INkundla ichazwa ngokubanzi “umkhamo phakathi kwamazwe amaninzi” ukuquka uhambo ngenqanawa, ukubetha isikhephe somphunga saseNew York sibodwa kwaye siqinisekisa ulawulo lwezwe kurhwebo lwamazwe.
  • United States v. Lopez (1995): okwesihlandlo sokuqala phantse ngamashumi amathandathu eminyaka, iNkundla ibeke umda weBhunga lorhwebo uClaus ngokusilela igunya leMini yeSikolo esikhululekileyo sikaGun, ilawula ukuba ukuphatha umpu kwingingqi yesikolo akuchaphazekanga kakhulu kwezorhwebo zamazwe ahlukeneyo.
  • NFIB v. Sebelius (202): INkundla yaxhasa ummiselo womntu ngamnye we-Afford Cancer Act njengomsebenzi osemthethweni wamandla okurhafisa kodwa waphelisa ilungiselelo elifuna iimeko zokwandisa iMedicaid njengenkani engekho mthethweni yolawulo lukarhulumente.
  • [[NTL:0] Umrphy v. NCAA (2018): Inkundla yabetha phantsi iProfessional and Ammeterur Sports Providect Act (PASPA), ibambe ukuba yaphula umthetho wemfundiso echasene nomyalelo ngokuthintela iimeko ekubhejeni imidlalo ngokusemthethweni. Esi sigqibo saqinisa umgaqo wokuba urhulumente wezwe angakwazi ukuwisela umthetho umthetho wemithetho.

Iimbambano Zangoku Kumanyano

Ulungelelwano lwamandla karhulumente norhulumente lusahleli kummandla wemfazwe yezobupolitika neyomthetho. Iindawo ezibonisa iziganeko zangoku zibonisa indaleko eqhubekayo yolongamo olubini.

ISebe leMicimbi yeNkcubeko neNkxaso

Ilungu lolwandiso lwe-MEdicaid lwe-ACAid lenza umzekelo omtsha. NFIB v. Sebelius, iNkundla yagqiba ukuba iKhomishini ayinako ukusoyikisa ukukhupha [ zonke inkxaso-mali yengingqi ye-Medicaid ukuba amazwe awala ukwandisa/ukunyanzelisa. Noko ke, ithetha ukuba ikhetha ukwandisa inkxaso enokuthi yamkele inkxaso eqinisiweyo. Namhlanje, umsebenzi owenziwe ngezandi zolwando namazwe angangeni- mgalelo ukhona, nto leyo ekhokelela ekupheliseni iintambo ekukhutshweni. Le nkonzo yentsebenziswano yentsebenziswano yesebe ixutywe nge-'''.

Ukufuduka kunye nokunyanzelwa kwelizwe elifikeleleka ngqo

Ukunyanzeliswa kolawulo kungumsebenzi wesizwe, kodwa amaphondo aye azama ukunceda okanye ukuphazamisa. Imithetho efana ne-Arizona’s S.B. 1070 neTexas i-S.B. 4 ivavanyiwe. INkundla ePhakamileyo e] iArizora v. iUnited States[[FLT]] ixhase ubungangamsha bolawulo kodwa ishiye igumbi lentsebenziswano yesizwe kwezinye iindawo (umz., ibeka amagunya asekuhlaleni malunga nabaphambukeli abafuduki. [kutshanje], impikiswano engakumbi, phezu “kwamadolophakathi kunye nemiqatha yomthetho egunya yokufuduka karhulumente iyaqhubeka ukuvavanya urhulumente. I-oyaleli-yaluyaluyaluyaluni, isiseko senkqubo esisekelwe kwi-'i-197] kunyaka onyaka onyaka onyaka onyaka onyaka onyaka onyaka onyaka onyaka onyaka onyaka onyaka ophezulu [4],4] kunye nolulawulo olugunyaziwe olugunyazweyo oluyayo luyelweyokutho

Umgaqo-nkqubo wokusingqongileyo kunye namandla kaRhulumente

Amazwe asoloko esebenza njengeelaboratori zolingelo kwinkqubo yokusingqongileyo. Umzekelo, iKhalifoniya, imisela imilinganiselo engqongqo yokukhupha izithuthi kuneziko lomthetho wesizwe phantsi komthetho we-Ceake Air wainer. Ulawulo lweTrump lwazama ukuphelisa oko kukhatywa kwe-rave, kwaye ulawulo lwe-Biden alubuyisela. [[FLT]] Massachusetts v. EPA [2007] [2007] [iinkundla ye-EPA] yathi negunya lokulawula igesi ejikelezayo phantsi koMthetho we-Cooperal Act.[3] EFT] i-BFT] i-FT [3] kunye nenkqubo efanayo yoncedo lwesizwe.[3]

Ukwenziwa komthetho kweMarijuana noMthetho woManyano

Ngaphandle kolwahlulo lwamaqumrhu orhulumente olulawula umyadi njenge Shedyuli, inani elikhulayo lamaphondo liye lasemthethweni kwezonyango kunye nezokuzonwabisa. Urhulumente wengingqi akavumelekanga ukuvavanya imisebenzi egunyazisiweyo (phantsi kwe Cole Memones kunye nokhokelo olulandelayo), kodwa imo yezomthetho ihlala ingenabungozi. Rohrabaker-par-indending[ ithintele iSebe leJaji ukuba lingangenisibali kwimali ukuze liphazamisane nemithetho yezonyango zedambini, kodwa kufuneka ihlaziswe nyaka ngamnye. Lo mmandla ubonisa ngokucacileyo umsantsa phakathi komthetho nemvume yesizwe nerethi yemeko-deo yemovelty enokuthi ilungiswe ngotshintsho lwemithetho yesizwe.

Amalungelo okuvelisa kwakhona kunye noManyano

Isigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo sibuyisele umbuzo wolawulo lokuqhomfa kumazwe. Oku kuye kwakhokelela kulwahlulo olunzulu lwelizwe: amanye amazwe afake malunga noluvo olupheleleyo, ngelixa amanye emisele ukhuseleko oluninzi. Iziphumo zongquzulwano (umz., ngokuphuma kumayeza okuqhomfa zidlula kwi-teleth kunye nohambo) zivuse imibuzo malunga nemida ye-oretatororterterration, u-mace Callas, kunye ne-Immakession. [I-Flactomaticle:]

Imfundiso Echasene Nomyalelo

Umlinganiselo ongundoqo wamandla karhulumente kumazwekazi yimfundiso echasene nomyalelo: urhulumente wengingqi akanakunyanzela ukuba kumiselwe okanye kumiselwe iinkqubo zolawulo lwamazwe. Lo mgaqo wasekwa kwi- New York v. United States, apho iNkundla yawisa umthetho karhulumente ofuna ukuba kubekho imicimbi ephantsi engcolileyo. Yaphinde yaqinisekiswa Primpz v. United States[FLT] [1997]], apho amalungiselelo awehlazisayo eBrady Hand Develvel Act Acts egunyathis egunyaza imodensiat neyomthetho efuna ukuba inyaniswe imeko engasemva. Imfundiso yezopolitiki ikhusela ulawulo lwezikhundla. Ngokoburhulumente, ngokobungasayi kusetyenziswa kusetyenziswa kunyaka wonyaka othelelweyo.[5]

Imanyano yomanyano kunye neeGrantas-in-Aid

Ngaphezu kwemfazwe, oorhulumente besizwe kunye norhulumente basebenzisana rhoqo[[FLT: 1] kunye nentlekele. Ngenkqubo yemali enika inkxaso-mali kunye neenkqubo ezidibeneyo. Le mithetho yesebe ihamba isiya kwiimeko zohola-ndlela, imfundo (umz., iSihloko Endinika) impilo kawonke-wonke (umz., iMedicaid), kunye nentlanganiso. Ukubuya, kuvumelana nokulandela imilinganiselo ethile yesizwe. Le mithetho yomanyano, maxa wambi ebizwa ngokuba “i-cake compustism,” ifinyeza imigca yolawulo. Abagxeki besithi urhulumente uvumela inkqubo yorhulumente ukuba iphembele imigaqo engaphaya kwemiqatha yamandla ayo. Abaxhasi bayijonga njengendlela esebenzayo yokulungisa iingxaki zesizwe ngexesha eliphantsi kolawulo. Le NkuNkulawula yeNkundla yeNkundla ibeke ibeke iMidabiso ye-Diegramenti, [ngeev2] [2] [3], i-AcG.[3] i-Advitionsner, apho

Isiphelo: Inkxwaleko Engapheliyo Yolongamo Lomanyano

Ulwalamano phakathi kwamagunya karhulumente norhulumente alumi ngamaxesha ahlukeneyo; lutshintsha-tshintsha nezinto eziza kuqala zezobupolitika zesizukulwana ngasinye kunye neenkcazelo zomthetho. Abaqulunqi besakhiwo bayila inkqubo yolawulo olubini lokukhusela inkululeko nokukhuthaza ulawulo olunempumelelo, kodwa badala isakhiwo esikhuthaza ingxubusho engapheliyo kunye neempikiswano. Ukusukela kumadabi okuqala eNational Bank kukwimpikiswano yezonyango, ukufuduka, nokuqhomfa, ukulingana kwegunya kuyaqhubeka. Ukuqonda izisekelo zomgaqo-siseko (* ukulawulwa nokusetyenziswa kwemithetho esemthethweni nokusetyenziswayo, iSintwesi-Supremacy Clace, kunye nemfundiso yokulwa kwe-omatilo-mthetho-mthetho-siseko ekhoyo ekwahlula ezi zixhobo zokuhlola ezi mpikiswano. Njengokuba iinguqulo-cuba zoluntu, ziya kuhlala zikho phakathi kokuma kohlanga noko kuhlala njalo.

Ukuqhubeka ufunda, jonga i [FLT][FON] I-ANTP encono yoluvo kuhlalutyo olugunyazisiweyo lwereyithi nganye, [[[FLT]] [[FLT]] [FLT]] Inkcazo yeNkqubano yezolwazi yezomthetho [[FLT:][FLT]][FLT]], kunye neembono zeNkundla Ephakamileyo ezichazwe ngasentla ngaphaya [FLT:][FLT][FLT][FLT:]][FLT][FLT]]