Isiseko Sembali Nemibono Yabasebenzi

UHlaliso Lokuqala aluzange luphume kumphetho wesiphendu. Iingcambu zalo zibuyela emva kwiBhili yamaNgesi yamaLungelo ka1689, eyayisele ilazi ilungelo lamaProtestanti lokucela isithsaba nokuphatha izixhobo. Amava okulawula amaBritane ngokuvavanya i-Gritane. Njengamava omshicileli uJohn Peter Zenger olwalu nxamnye nomthetho wokuvukela urhulumente ngo1735. [Ngangokunye,] i-John Locke , i-Firrove ifuna imfuneko yokukhusela intetho ecacileyo kunye nokushicilela. ISindululo saseVirginia samaLungelo samaLungelo, esaburhulumente, sathiwa, sathiwaba aba bafundele baninzi aba bafundele ingcali belizwe, ngaphandle kokuba benziwe ngooyika urhulumente. [F.5] [5]

Umbhalo Ocacisiweyo Wokuqala Wokwenziwa Komthetho

Umbhalo opheleleyo, owaqulunqwa ngoDisemba 15, 1791, ufundeka ngolu hlobo:

“ Akukho mthetho ongokumiselwa konqulo, okanye ukuthintela ukusetyenziswa kwalo ngokukhululekileyo; okanye ukucutha inkululeko yokuthetha, okanye yokushicilela; okanye ilungelo labantu lokuhlanganisa ngoxolo, nokucela uRhulumente ukuba alungise izikhalazo.”

Qaphela ukuba ulungiso luqala ngothintelo lweBhunga (hhayi kumazwe okanye kubadlali babucala. Ngaphezu kwenkulungwane, uLawulo Lokuqala lwanyanzeliswa ngurhulumente wesizwe kuphela. Kwakungengowonyaka ka-1975 Gitrow v. New York iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaqalisa ukusebenzisa ukhuseleko lwayo kumazwe angaphaya ko ] i-Century Clausse [] iPromssionssioned Express, inkqubo eyaziwayo njenge-Genetivestified. Namhlanje, ngokubalulekileyo zonke iziqinisekiso zoLuhlulo lokuqala ziyasebenza kurhulumente kunye norhulumente basekuhlaleni.

Inkululeko Yokuthetha: Ingqungquthela Yedemokhrasi

Inkululeko yokuthetha yinjini karhulumente. Igquma kungekuphela nje amazwi athethwayo nabhalwayo kodwa kwakhona iintlobo ezininzi zehambo etyhiliweyo . Ukutshisa iflegi ekuvuthelweni, ukunxiba umkhono womfuziselo, okanye kwanokuchitha imali kwizibhengezo zezobupolitika (nangona umzekelo wokugqibela uhlala uphikisana kakhulu). INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yakumela ngokuphindaphindiweyo oko kuthetha, nokuba akuthandwa okanye kucaphukisayo, kukhuselekile ngaphandle kokuba kubekwe kwiindidi ezimbalwa ezimxinwa.

I-fs ekhuselekileyo. Intetho Engakhuselwanga

Kwiminyaka engamashumi, iNkundla iqophele imiqathango elinganiselweyo kwinkululeko yokuthetha. Ezi ntlobo zichazwe kancinci[[FLT: 1] kwaye zisoloko ziphantsi kohlolo olungqongqo lwezahlulelo:

  • Ikhuthaza ukuchas' umthetho okusondeleyo. Kwi Brandenburg v. Ohio [1969]], iNkundla yathi intetho ekhuthaza ugonyamelo ikhuselekile ngaphandle kokuba “ibhekiswe ekukhuthazeni okanye ekuvezeni isenzo esingesomthetho esikufuphi” kwaye inokwenzeka ukuvelisa isenzo esinjalo. Oku kuthabathel' indawo “ingozi enkulu kunye nokukhoyo” uvavanyo olusuka [[FLT:] Scheck v. United States[FL:5]
  • I-'obscenity'. Ichazwe ngokuchaza [[FLT] Miller v. California [177]]) ngovavanyo lwenxenye ezintathu: (1) umsebenzi ukhuthaza umdla ophezulu kwisondo, (2) uchaza okanye uchaza ihambo yesondo ngendlela egqwethekileyo, kunye (3) uswele umbhali, ubugcisa, ubugcisa, okanye ixabiso lenzululwazi.
  • Ukukhupha. Iintetho zobuxoki ezithi bonakalisa idumela lomntu azikhuselekanga, kodwa amanani kawonke-wonke kufuneka angqine “ubungendawo obuqhelekileyo”] ulwazi lwenkohliso okanye ukungakhathaleli ngeyona ndlela inyaniso. Njenge zimiselwe kwi New York Times Co. v. Sullivan [1964].]
  • [[NTL: 0] Izisongelo zenyaniso. Intetho ejoliswe kumntu othile onenjongo yokubeka loo mntu ngoloyiko lokwenzakala komzimba ayikhuselekanga, ngokokunga IVirginia v. Mnyama (2003)].
  • amagama alwayo. [[FLT:] Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire [1942], iNkundla yathetha ukuba “ngamazwi ayo adala umonakalo okanye athanda ukuvuselela ulwaphuko olukhawulezileyo loxolo” lungasohlwaywa. Lo mahluko usetyenziswa ngokufutshane.

Intetho Yomfuziselo

Ihambo ejoliswe ekudluliseleni umyalezo othile idla ngokuphathwa njengentetho. Owona mzekelo udumileyo ngu Texas v. Johnson (1998), apho iNkundla yagqiba ukuba iflegi itsha njengewonga yezobupolitika iyakhuselwa. Ngokunjalo, ukunxiba irhintyelo emnyama kwisikolo ukuqhayisa imfazwe yaseVietnam yakhuselwa kwi [[[FLT:]]] i-Tinrvv. [Des Moine Independent School Dis [[FLT] [[FLT]] [1969]). Inkundla isebenzisa uvavanyo olulinganisiweyo: ukuba umthetho karhulumente ujoliswe kwiziphumo ezichaphaza imfazwe [[FLD:] [FLT]] eziphengululayo], isebenza ngokungqongqo, ukuba ijongene gwenxa; ukuba iyasebenza kwingozi engasetyenziswa (g.)

Intetho Yezobupolitika Nemali

Mhlawumbi akukho ndawo yomthetho wenkululeko yokuthetha ithanda ukuphikisana kunemali yephulo. ICIIisens United v. Federal Instruction Commission (2010), iNkundla yathi amaqumrhu namaqumrhu anelungelo lokusebenzisa uHlaziyo lokuqala kwinkcitho yezopolitiko ezimeleyo. Abahlalutyi baphikisa oku kuphelisa amazwi abemi abaqhelekileyo; abaxhasi bathi igcina ilungelo lokuthetha ngemicimbi yezobupolitika. Ingxoxo iyaqhubeka, kwaye isakhiwo seNkundla sisenokuyiguqula le mfundiso.

Inkululeko Yezintsebenziswano: ISiza Sesine

Igalelo loshicilelo loshicilelo likhusela irekhodi yezemfundo yesebe, kodwa iNkundla Ephakamileyo ayizange inike iintatheli amalungelo akhethekileyo kunalawo akhoyo kuluntu ngokubanzi. Noko ke, amatyala emali asebenza kwindima ekhethekileyo yokugada inja. Amatyala eLandmark aquka ne/BBEAB. Minnesota[ [193] [1931], apho iNkungekho mvumo onamandla wokuzimela ukukhutshwa kwangaphambili (ulawulo phambi kokupapashwa), kwaye [umsebenzi wephondo umele ukwazi ukunikela ingxelo] iNew York Times. Co. v. United States[FLT][FLT][3] [127], ityala lamaphephandaba athenwayo, apho inkundla yezomthetho-okhesa ingenakukwazi ukuvala ukupapashwa kwamaxwebhu ahlukeneyo malunga nemfazwe emfazwe emfazweni.

Inkululeko Yonqulo: Abambini AbanguClaus

Izigwebo zonqulo zisoloko zisengxakini. [[FLT:] Inkundla ilwalela urhulumente ukuba akhethe ngokusemthethweni naluphi na unqulo; i[[FLT]] i-[FLT] ikhusela ilungelo labantu lokulandela iinkolelo zabo zonqulo. Inkundla izama ukuzoba umgca othe nkqo. [[FLT:] [4] I-Employment v. Smith[FLT] [1990], iNkundla ikholelwa ukuba imithetho yobundilele ye-ekhomputha ayichaphazamisi ngokukhululekileyo, nokuba ngabaxanduvani baphantsi konqulo. [4] [4] [iiimeko yonqulo iyasebenza (1993]) kunye nemithetho ye-ekhomputha yonqulo (i-Ft).[4][4] [i-Fog.[4]

Indibano Nesicelo: Ilungelo Lokuviwa

Amalungelo okuhlanganisana ngoxolo nokubongoza urhulumente ziinkqubo abanokusebenzisa ngazo abemi kunye. Iindibano ziquka yonke into ukusuka kwiintlanganiso ezincinci zoluntu ukuya kwimibhiyozo emikhulu kwiNational Mall. Inkundla ePhakamileyo ikhusele ilungelo lokuhlanganisana noluntu nge-Fums/street, iipakets, kunye neendlela ezihamba ngecala (zithobela ixesha elifanelekileyo, indawo, kunye nemiqathango. [[FL:0]] NAACP v. Alabama[FLT] [1958]], iNkubonakalisa ilungelo lokuhlanganisana phakathi kwamaqela. Ukucenga intelenteko-msko kusenokuthatha iindlela ezininzi: ukusayina isibongozo, ukubhala kwiBhunga, ukuququzelela inkqubo yokumangalela, okanye ukurhoxisa. I-intanethi le Internet inyusa ukufaneleka, kodwa ikwanyusa ukuhlaselwa kwe-intanethi kunye nokuhlaselwa kwe-intanethi phakathi kwe-intanethi kunye ne-'intervert.

Uphawu Lwetyala LeNkundla Ephakamileyo Luphazamisa Uhlaziyo Lokuqala

Ngelixesha inqaku lokuqala lidwelise imiba emithathu, emininzi ichaze ujongo lwalenkululeko. Ukujonga okubanzi kubandakanya:

  • Gitrow v. New York (1925) – quka i Free Spee Spee Claus echasene noorhulumente.
  • Caplinsky v. New Hampshire (1942) – Izise “amagama alwayo” imfundiso.
  • Ibhodi yeWest Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette[FL:1] (143) – - Iwithi le-iProfethi i-Fout i-intshi enokuthi abafundi abanakunyanzeleka ukuba bakhahlele iflegi okanye bacengce iSifungo se-Alegiance.
  • Brandenburg v. Ohio [1] (1 969) – Seta uvavanyo lwangoku lokuvuselela.
  • [[UMTL:0] Miller v. California (1973) – Chaziswe ubunyhukunyhuku.
  • [[UMTL:0] Reno v. ACLU (1997) – Ukurhoxa kuMthetho woNxibelelwano Dececency, ukwandisa ukhuseleko olupheleleyo loMphetho wokuqala wokuLandlisela kwincoko yengingqi.
  • [[NTL:0] ``Matal v. Tam [2017]) – Iphaphazamiso lwengxelo yeLanham Act yokwaphula intetho ekhululekileyo, ivumela igama leqela lenqanawa “Izidangalazo” ukuba ziphawulwe.
  • [[UMTL: 0] Packingham v. umNtla Carolina (2017) – Izaziso zamaqonga oluntu olunentlalo-ntle njengeefomati zale mihla zothetha.

Ezi zigqibo zibonisa umgudu oqhubekayo weNkundla wokubonisana nabanye abantu ngoxa ilandela imbali yeSihlaziyo Sokuqala.

Iingxaki Nempikiswano

Umgangatho ophakathi wobugcisa nobugcisa boluntu

Iinkampani zezentlalo eendaba ngabadlali abazimeleyo, ngoko ke uHlaziyo Lokuqala ludla ngokungasithinteli isigqibo sobungcathu solwakhiwo lwazo. Noko ke, njengaseTexas nase Florida, luye lwabeka imithetho ezama ukunyanzela amaqonga ukuba afumane iimbono ezithile. Umthetho-siseko waloo mithetho udityanisiwe ngoku. Umbuzo ongundoqo kukuba amaqonga eewezosasazo afana namaphepha-ndaba athetha ngokulula kakhulu (anokucotha kwengcaciso lomhleli) okanye iziphathi-mathetho eziqhelekileyo (ezimele ziphathe zonke ii-metafile ngokulinganayo). Umba onxulumene nawo ngunyuko “we-deplatforming"."/neiading" xa inkonzo isusa umsebenzisi ozo zokwaphula amazwi ayo. Abagxeki abachani baphikisa amazwi adlalwayo; abaxhasi bathi kuyimfuneko ukulwa nokuchatshaniswa kwe-transformation. Inkundla iya kukhawuleza ukunyuka.

Ukuthiya Intetho

I-United States ithatha indlela ekhethekileyo yokuvumela intetho entiweyo. Ngokungafaniyo nezinye ezininzi zedemokrasi, intetho yoMgqibelo wokuqala ikhusela kwanokuba ihlazeke kakhulu, ikhethe ubuhlanga, okanye i-homophob ngaphandle kokuba iwele kwenye yeendlela ezimxinwa (izisongelo zokwenene, ukuphembelela, amagama okulwa). Matal v. Tam, iNkutsho ngokucacileyo ukuba iNkundla intetho ayivalwanga ngenxa yokuba isenokuchaza ingcinga. Oku akuthethi ukuba intetho ingumbono ecacileyo---"adieat) kwaye abaqeshi bayo bangayithinteli emsebenzini, kwaye urhulumente akanakuyigweba intetho ngenxa nje yokuthetha. Abaphengululi abaninzi abachazi besithi isichasayo sentetho eninzi, abachazi bolwimi.

Inkcazelo Ephosakeleyo Nenkcazelo Engachananga

Ukusasazeka kwenkcazelo yobuxoki, ingakumbi ngexesha lonyulo kunye neengxaki zempilo kawonke-wonke, kuye kwabangela iingxoxo ezingokwasemthethweni. Amandla karhulumente okunyanzela okanye ukohlwaya intetho alinganiselwe. United States v. Alvarez (202). INkundla yabetha phantsi iStolen Vallor Act, exokiswe ngokufumana iimendulo zomkhosi, ithetha kwanamazwi angengawo awenyanisiweyo. Kodwa ke, iNkundla ivumele imiqathango ethile kwintetho yentengiso elahlekisayo, kwaye abameli bakarhulumente banokulungisa ulwazi lobuxoki ngaphandle kokuyigxeka. Ucelomngeni kukulwa kwe-Greversitemptel yenyaniso, nto leyo elungiselelwe ukunqanda ukunqanda ukunqanda.

Intetho Yecampu Neendawo Ezikhuselekileyo

Iiyunivesithi zikawonke-wonke, njengabadlali bakarhulumente, kufuneka ziwahlonele amalungelo oMphengululo Wokuqala wabafundi. Inkundla Ephakamileyo kwi- ithetha ngokuphandle no . James [1972] ikholelwa ukuba ikholeji kawonke-wonke ayinakukhanyela ukuqwalaselwa kweqela labafundi eliphikisayo elisekelwe kwiimbono zayo zezobupolitika. Namhlanje, ingxushuwa eshushu “zilumkiso ezixhobisayo,” kunye nemithetho yokuthetha enokuthi ipholise i-oyile. Isebe Lemfundo Yolawulo Lomthetho Yesizwe likhumbuze izikolo ukuba ukusohlwaya abanye kuba yenza abanye bangakholiswa kweSigqibo sokuqala. Uxanduva oluphakathi kokuzinziswa kwemeko olunentlonelo nokukhusela yindawo esebenzayo yokuHlayilwa koMphetho.

Ukhuseleko Lwesizwe Neziphatho

After the September 11 attacks, the government expanded its surveillance powers with the Patriot Act and later the USA Freedom Act. Whistleblowers like Edward Snowden and Reality Winner exposed classified programs, leading to prosecutions under the Espionage Act. The First Amendment does not give a government employee an unlimited right to leak classified information; the courts have historically deferred to the executive branch on national security classifications. Nonetheless, press freedom protects journalists who publish such leaks, as seen in the Pentagon Papers case. The balance between secrecy and the public’s right to know remains hotly contested.

Isizathu Sokuba Ukuqonda IsiHlomelo Sokuqala Kubaluleke Namhlanje

UMthetho wokuqala Wokwenziwa koMphetho awusiyo ingxelo ebhaliweyo; luxwebhu oluphilayo oluthi ukutolika kuqhubekeke kwisizukulwana ngasinye. Ukusuka kubuchule bomfundi bokunxiba ingxingo ebotshelelweyo ukuya kwilungelo lombutho lokuchitha izigidi zabantu kwizibhengezo zephulo, le ndlela yokukhusela zonke iinkalo zobomi baseMerika. Njengoko kuvela ubugcisa obutsha neengcinezelo zentlalo, iinkundla ziya kuqhubeka zicombulula imida yokuthetha okukhuselekileyo. Kubemi, ukwazi umgangatho nemilinganiselo yeSinyuko soMmiselo wokuqala kubalulekile ekusebenziseni amalungelo abo siqu nasekuhlonelweni abanye. Kusisiseko soluntu apho ulwaphulo-mthetho lunokuxatyiswa, urhulumente uya kubekwa, kwaye wonke umntu unokuthetha, abhale, aququze, ahlanganise, aququze kunye nesicelo sokuguqula.