Ingcamango yokuhlola nokulinganisela ibalulekile ekusebenzeni kukarhulumente wase-United States. Iqinisekisa ukuba alikho isebe elinye elinamandla kakhulu, ngaloo ndlela likhusela amalungelo abemi kwaye ligcina umthetho. Eli lungiselelo aliloncedo nje lokukhusela — licebo eliluncedo eliye layila imicimbi yezobupolitika yaseMerika kangangeenkulungwane ezimbini. Ukuqonda inkqubo yokuhlola nokulinganisela kufuna ukuba amasebe amathathu asebenzisane njani, umongo wembali wendalo yawo, kunye nezicelo zawo zeli hlabathi kulawulo lwale mihla. Abalawuli bomGaqo-siseko, badwelisa iinkulungwane zengcinga zezobupolitika kunye namava abo basebenza kunye norhulumente, bacebise urhulumente owenziwe ngomgaqo omele ulawulo olunamandla. Eli nqaku linikela uphandle lwendlela yokuhlola kunye nolungelelaniso, kunye nemizekelo ehlalisayo yabafundi, kunye nabenze imizekelo enxulumene nabemi, abahleli kunye nabo basekuhlaleni, abaququququlene.

Amasebe Amathathu Karhulumente: Ingongoma Ekhawulezayo

Phambi kokuntywila ujonge umlinganiselo, kubalulekile ukuqonda indima eyahlukileyo yesebe ngalinye. UmGaqo-siseko wase-U.S., wagunyaziswa ngo-1788, wamahlula urhulumente wezwe ngokwee-emithathu ezilinganayo, ngalinye elinemisebenzi nemisebenzi yalo yokuqala. Oku kwahlulwa kwamagunya kusisiseko apho inkqubo yokuhlola nokulungelelanisa ihlala khona.

  • Isebe elinokwandiswa: Lenziwe yiBhunga (Indlu yabameli neNdlu yeeNdlu yeeNtlanganiso), linembopheleleko yokwenza imithetho, ukuvakalisa imfazwe, ukulawula urhwebo, kunye nokulawula inkcitho yemali karhulumente. IGatya I yeSigqeba seNkqutyana iZibo zonke iimpahla zowisomthetho kwiBhunga.
  • Isebe eliphumezayo: Eliphethwe nguMongameli, linyanzelisa lize limisele imithetho karhulumente, liyalela umkhosi, liqhuba inkqubo yelinye ilizwe, lize limisele amagosa karhulumente (aphantsi kokuqinisekiswa kweBhunga). Inqaku II lichaza amandla alawulayo.
  • Isebe le-judicial:[ Ukuxhasa iNkundla ePhakamileyo kunye neenkundla ezisezantsi zephondo, ichaza imithetho, ihlola ubulunga bomGaqo-siseko wemimiselo kunye nezenzo zolawulo oluphezulu, kunye nokucombulula iimpikiswano phakathi kwamazwe. Inqaku III limisela amandla okugweba.

Ngokubeka amasebe awohlukeneyo, abasebenzi baqinisekisa ukuba akukho qumrhu linokulawula urhulumente.

Imvelaphi Yendlela Yokukhangela Nokulungelelana

Abalawuli bomGaqo-siseko babephenjelelwe kakhulu sisithandi sobulumko sokukhanyiselwa uBaron de Montesquieu, omsebenzi wakhe wowewaka linamakhulu asixhenxe anesine uMoya woMthetho[ waphikisa ukuba inkululeko yezobupolitika ifuna ukwahlulwa kwamagunya phakathi kwamasebe azimeleyo. UJames Madison, ngokufuthi ubizwa ngokuba nguBawo woMgaqo-siseko, uqululela le ngcamango kuMgaqo-siseko, ewenziwa inkqubo ekwakheniseni iPhondo uNo. 51: "Imfuno kufuneka yenziwe ukuze kulwiswe inkcaso yerhalazelo." Abalawuli baye bakubona ukuxhatshazwa kolawulo olungekho mandla phantsi kolawulo oluphantsi kolawulo oluzizo, kwaye bafuna urhulumente olungeleneyo onokuthi ahlale anyamezele zombini naziphi naziphi naziphi naziphi na izisongelo. Kodwa lo mlawuli othe ukunqandwa kwesebe urhulumente omiselwe yimithetho.

Iingqwalasela zoMthetho kwisebe elinolawulo oluphezulu

IBhunga linezixhobo ezinamandla zokulawula nokulinganisela amandla oMongameli kunye namasebe aphetheyo. Oku kuhlola kubalulekile ekulondolozeni ukuphakama komthetho ekuqulunqeni umthetho nokuqinisekisa ukuba ulawulo oluphezulu luxhomekeke

Veto Engasinanziyo

Ukuba uMongameli uthe wanika umthetho odluliswa yiNgqungquthela, indlu yowiso-mthetho ingaphendula ngokuthi iveto ngomvoti omkhulu ozii-3 ezimbini kwindlu kunye neNdlu yeNdlu yeNdlu. Oku kuqinisekisa ukuba umphathi ophetheyo akanakuwufumana ummiselo owenziweyo owenzelwe ukuxhasa okuxhaphakileyo. Umzekelo, ngo-2020, iKhomishini engaphezulu kakhulu kuMongameli uTrump'sveto weSigunyaziso soMkhosi soMkhosi wesizwe — kuphela i-veto eyesibini ukulawula umongameli wakhe (umthetho wokuqala wenziwa ngo-2016 ngoMandunaba noMlawuli wobuGaqosheshe phantsi koMongameli Obama).

Ukungakhathalelwa Nokushenxiswa

IGatya II, ICandelo lesi-4 lomGaqo-siseko linika iNdlu yabameli igunya elipheleleyo lokususa amagosa aseburhulumenteni eququzelela uMongameli, uMongameli, uMongameli, namanye amagosa asekuhlaleni "oMcimbi, uSinyongo, okanye amanye amaCrime kunye nama-Misdeator" IBhunga libamba ityala kwaye lingabanjwa ngevoti ezimbini-3, ukususwa kwegosa eliseofisini. Umthetho ugunyaziso luye lwasetyenziswa ngokuchasene nokuziphatha okubi kwe-Profesi ezintathu ze-U.S. Umongameli uAndrew Johnson (1868), uBill Clinton (indec, kunye noDonald Trice (2019, kunye no-2021) wagwetywa nguRhunyulwa yi-Rheader, kodwa akukho nanye esebenzayo ngokuchasene nokuziphatha okubi kolawulo oluphezulu.

Isiqinisekiso seBhunga

Amandla kaMongameli okumisela amalungu eKhabhinethi, abagwebi besizwe, abameli, namanye amagosa omgangatho ophezulu avavanywa yi-"advice kunye nendima yeNdlu yeNdlu yeQela". IBhunga liqinisekisa okanye liyala ukuvota ngobuninzi (nangona i-monicbuster ingafuna amavoti angama-60 kwimiba emininzi). Le nkqubo ithe yaba yeyokungamele kakhulu kwiminyaka yakutshanje, ingenawo ama-mine ajongene ngokunzima. Umzekelo, ukwala kuka-2016 kweNtsinjana ukuba ibambe ityala likaMerick Garland, uMongameli weNku ePhaka kweNkundla engu-Obama, ibonisa indlela enokuthi isebenzise ngayo le nkqubo ukubumba i-judiary ka-Judicaria kamashumi eminyaka.

Amandla Okuthenga

IKhomishini ilawula yonke imali esetyenziswa ngurhulumente ngamandla ayo ukuze ifumane imali efanelekileyo. Igunya alinakuyisebenzisa imali ngaphandle kwemvume yomthetho. Oku kunika iKhomishini uvavanyo olunamandla kwiinkambiso zikaMongameli — ingayisusa iinkqubo okanye amaqumrhu, imisele iimeko zemali, okanye isebenzise inkqubo yoqingqo-mali ukuphembelela inkqubo. Urhulumente 2018-2019, oyena uphambili kwimbali ye-U.S., umeluko-ntle wakwala ukuxhasa isicelo sikaMongameli u-Trump sodonga lomda, ibonisa impembelelo yokwenene yeli lizwe lale ngxaki.

Ukwenziwa kweNgxelo yoMthendeleko

Phantsi kweGatya II, iCandelo 2, uMongameli angathethana kwaye atyikitye izivumelwano, kodwa asebenza kuphela ukuba iivoti ezimbini-ntathu zeNdlu yeNdlu yeMacana ziwakhuphe. Oku kuqinisekisa ukuba izibophelelo ezinkulu zezizwe ngezizwe zibonisa ukuvumelana okubanzi, hayi nje ukukhetha okuphezulu kuphela. Ukulahlwa kweSivumelwano saseVersailles ngo1920-1920 nokungaphumeleli kwesivumelwano seComprehensive Nuclear-Ban ngo-1999 yimizekelo yeBharhanethisi evala isivumelwano sobungameli esivimbela umongameli.

Isebe elilawulayo lihlola isebe elinomthetho

UMongameli ukwaneengcebiso eziliqela kwiiKhonkxa zemithetho, ezenzelwe ukuthintela ukuphangwa kwemithetho nokuqinisekisa ukuba igosa eliphetheyo linokuzifeza iimbopheleleko zalo zomgaqo-siseko.

Umbane weVeto

UMongameli angawukhupha nawuphi na umrhumo odluliswa yiKhomishini, awubuyisele ngokuphikisa. Nangona iKhomishini ingawulawula, iveto isisixhobo esinamandla ngenxa yokuba ukuqhuba idinga izakhiwo ezinkulu. Phakathi kowewaka linamakhulu asibhozo9 kunye nowama-2020, uMongameli unyuswe ngaphezu kwama-500 ematyala, anama-4%-gnonlate. Angenakubonwa aquka uMongameli Franklin D. Roosevelt's deto ka-decut weSicwangciso seTsholo ngo19449 kunye noMongameli George W. Bush's's'sveto of the St Cestem Releaderation Relectation Actum ka-2006.

Name

Inqaku II, iCandelo lesithathu ligunyazisa uMongameli ukuququzelela iKhomishini ngexesha elingaqhelekanga. Ngelixesha kunqabileyo ukuba kusetyenziswe kumaxesha angoku — owokugcina yayinguMongameli Harry Truman's weseshini ekhethekileyo yowe-1948 ukuthetha ngezoqoqosho — oku kuhlola kuvumela umphathi ophetheyo ukuba anyanzelise inkqubo yowiso-mthetho xa iBhunga lisemgangathweni.

Imiqathango yecandelo

UMongameli angakhupha imiyalelo yegunya elilawulayo ukuyalathisa indlela ekwenziwa ngayo okanye ukulawula isebe lesizwe. Le miyalelo inonyanzelo lomthetho kodwa inokupheliswa yiKhomishini ngomthetho okanye ziinkundla ukuba igqithe igunya lomgaqo-siseko. Imiyalelo yegunya iye yasetyenziswa nguMongameli ngamnye, ukusuka kuMphathiswa we-George Washington's Antiparite Proclaturation (1793) kuMongameli Biden kwizenzo zegunya elilawulayo kutshintsho lwemozulu nokufuduka.

Amandla ePardon

Inqaku II, iCandelo 2 linika uMongameli amandla okunika ii-repriev kunye nokuxolela amatyala karhulumente (ngaphandle kokungagunyaziswa). Oku kuhlola kungaziphelisa izigwebo zomthetho kunye nezigqibo zolwaphulo-mthetho, kunikezelwe iindlela zokulungisa ukuphunyelwa kobulungisa okanye kukhuthazwa umanyano lwesizwe. Owona mzekelo udumileyo nguMongameli Gerald Ford' ukuxolelwa kukaRichard Nixon ngo- 1974, kodwa igunya lihlala linempikiswano xa lisetyenziswa kumaqabane ezobupolitika.

Ukuhlolisisa Amasebe Asemthethweni Nanemigaqo

Isebe lejaji, ngamandla okuhlola okugweba, lisebenza njengovavanyo olubalulekileyo kwiBhunga kunye noMongameli. Uhlolo lwezejaji — igunya lokuvakalisa imithetho okanye izenzo zolawulo ezingekho mgaqweni — alikhankanywanga ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko kodwa lasekwa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo Marbury v. Madison [1803]. Ukususela ngoko, iinkundla ziye zahlola amawaka emithetho yorhulumente neyombuso, zihlola abo baphula umGaqo-siseko.

Ukukhupha Imithetho

Xa iBhunga likhupha umthetho ofunyanwa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo ifumana ungekho mgaqweni, umthetho uba liphuthile. Imizekelo yephawu iquka rown v. Ibhodi yemfundo [1954], eyaphelisa ucalucalulo lobuhlanga kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke, kunye United States v. Lopez [19595], ekwakungawasebenzi kweBhunga phantsi kweChunga loMkhosi worhwebo uClaus ngokungawusebenzisi umthetho weSikolo Esikhululekileyo. Oku kuqinisekisa ukuba umthetho ujonge imida yemithetho.

Izenzo zolawulo oluphezulu ezihlolisisiweyo

Iinkundla zingalawula ukuba izenzo zomongameli zigqithe kumgaqo-siseko okanye kwigunya lomthetho. Umzekelo, kuBantwana Ikhasi leThromethiki ye Tube Co. v. Sawyer (1202], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi ukuxhatshazwa kwezinyithi zentsimbi ngexesha lemfazwe yeKoriya bekungagunyaziswanga yiBhunga. Kutshanje, iNkundla ivimbele ukuvalwa komkelo lwe-Rondeli ku-2017, kunye noMongameli Biden's concess ngokuboleka abafundi ngo-2023, ibonisa ukuba uPresipala we-judiary eqhubekayo kwindima yokukhangela isigcuma-matiki.

Ukutolika UmGaqo-siseko

INkundla Ephakamileyo ithetha okugqibelelyo ngentsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko, kuquka umlinganiselo wovavanyo kunye nolungelelwano ngokwayo. Ngezigqibo zayo, iNkundla ichaza imida phakathi kwamasebe, njengobubanzi belungelo eliphezulu (umz., United States v. Nixon, okanye imida yamandla ombutho (umz. ] iSitiko seBoerne v. Flores, 1997). Oku kutolika igunya kuvavanya ulawulo olunamandla olupheleleyo lorhulumente.

Amasebe Asemthethweni Nabezogwebo

Ngeli xesha isalathisi somthetho sinokubetha imithetho, iNgqungquthela ineengqwalasela zayo kwiinkundla. IBhunga liqinisekisa bonke abagwebi bequmrhu, kuquka iziBandla zeNkundla Ephakamileyo. Ngaphezu koko, iBhunga linokuguqula igunya leenkundla ezisezantsi, litshintshe ubungakanani beNkundla ePhakamileyo (igunya elisetyenziswe kuma-1860 ukuthintela uMongameli Andrew Johnson ekumiseni amatyala), kwaye lisuse abagwebi abagwebi abakwiziphethe kakubi. Abagwebi abalishumi elinesibini besizwe baye abatyunjwa e-U. [FLP] imbali yembali, kunye neqela elisusiweyo. Ingqungquthela ingacebisa intengi yomgaqo-mGikeleleko, ukuba, ukuba ivusiwe, inokuthi iqhube izigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo — njengokuba kwenzeka ngeAshemplath Dempliter [FLD] [F] [3]]

ISebe elilawulayo kunye noNxibelelwano

UMongameli umisela abagwebi besizwe, kodwa ukumiswa kufuna uqinisekiso lweNdlu yeeNtlanganiso. Xa ityunjwe, abagwebi bequzelela ubomi (bephethe kakuhle), abakhusela kwingcinezelo yobumongameli. Noko ke, uMongameli angaphembelela abagwebi ngokumisela abagwebi abaneengcamango ezithile — iqhinga eliye laba semgangathweni kumada ezobupolitika. Kwakhona lo mphathi-mikhosi unyanzelisa imithetho yenkundla, ngoko ke uMongameli uyakwazi ukumelana nomgaqo-mthetho, kodwa loo nto ingabangela ingxaki. Ngokuqhelekileyo, ukuthobela kwemithetho ephakamileyo kwizigqibo zenkundla kuye kwaba ngumthetho oqhelekileyo, ngokuchasene neemeko ezifana noMongameli Andrew Jackson, "uJohn Marshall uthe , ngoku wenza isigqibo sakhe; makasinyanze, ngoko ke, ngoko ke, ngoko ke, ngoko ke unokwenza ukuba kungqineliswe, ngoko [Foct:] Vcester.[121]

Iingcelo Nocelomngeni Lwale Mihla

Inkqubo yokuhlola nokulinganisela isebenza kwimeko-bume yezobupolitika eyahluke kakhulu kunokuba babe becinga. Ukwanda kwamaqela ezobupolitika, ulwando lolawulo, nolwando lwamandla olawulo (ingakumbi kwimicimbi yamanye amazwe nakukhuseleko lohlanga) kuye kwavavanya ukwakhiwa kwasekuqaleni. Namhlanje, imikhwa emininzi ibalaselisa amandla nobuthathaka benkqubo.

Iqhina le-Grid kunye necandelo

Xa amaqela awahlukeneyo elawula iWhite House kunye neKhonklane, uhlolo kunye nolungelelwano lungakhokelela kwiqhina lemithetho. Urhulumente uvala umvalo ngo-202018-2019, kunye nolufutshane nolungamiselwanga kwindlu yamatyala abonisa indlela inkqubo enokulivala ngayo inyathelo kwimibandela enzima. Abanye abaphengululi baphikisa ngokuthi ukuxina kweqhina eligqithisileyo kunciphisa ukuphenduliswa kwedemokhrasi, ngelixa abanye bezama ukubonakalisa injongo yabalawuli borhulumente baze bakhe imvume.

Imiyalelo yegunya nesenzo esingahambisaniyo

Abalawuli babo bobabini baxhomekeke ngokuya bengena kwimiyalelo yabalawuli yokungathobeli imithetho. Ngeli xesha bephantsi kovavanyo lomthetho kunye nokubuyiselwa kombutho, imiyalelo yabalawuli ingadala utshintsho olukhulu lwenkqubo ngaphandle kwevoti, njengoko kubonwa nguMongameli Obama's Defered Action for Documentals (DACA) kunye noMongameli Biden ithetha ukuba oku kuphelisa uvavanyo lwemithetho-mthetho, kodwa abaxhasi baphikisa ukuba kuyimfuneko kwintshukumo yokuthintela i-Roffration.

Imigaqo-nkqubo

Inkqubo yokuqinisekisa abagwebi beNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yancitshiswa kakhulu. Ukungavumi kuka-2016 ukuqwalasela uMerrick Garland, ukuqinisekiswa kuka-2018 kukaBrett Kavaugh emva kokuchotshelwa kwetyala, kunye no-202020 ukungxama ukuqinisekisa uAmy Coney Barrett kwiiveki ezimbalwa nje ngaphambi konyulo kukho imbono ephambili yokuba ijaji iba lisebe lezobupolitika. Oku kuphakamisa imibuzo yokuba uvavanyo lwejaji lungahlala lungakhethi na kumatyala aphezulu.

Ubandakanyeko Lwasesidlangalaleni Nemfundo

Ukuhlolwa nokulungelelana ukuze kusebenze ngendlela efunwa ngayo, abemi kufuneka bayiqonde baze bayikhusele inkqubo. Ukuphaphela uluntu ngemigaqo yomgaqo-siseko kuyahla, ngokweziphakamiso zeAnnenberg Policy Center. Ngaphandle kovoti noluntu olusebenzayo, amasebe asenokudlula ngaphandle kokuphendula. Ukufundisa abakhandi nembali yokuhlola nokulinganisela kubalulekile ekulondolozeni i-riphabliki.

Isiphelo

Iingqinipho kunye nolungelelwano luyinxalenye esisiseko yoMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S., ocetyelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuba igunya lisasazwa kwaye loo rhulumente uhlala emele imele ihlelwe ngabantu. Ukuqonda le nkqubo kubalulekile kootitshala nabafundi njengoko besebenzisa ubuntlola bukarhulumente waseMelika. Ukusuka kwi-wino-mthetho kwi-veto kunye nesiqinisekiso sokuhlola amabhongo kunye nemiyalelo yesebe elilawulayo, isebe ngalinye linezixhobo ezinamandla zokumisela abanye abantu. Kodwa inkqubo ayimiswangaguquguquki — ivela kwizithethe zezobupolitika, izigqibo zenkundla, kunye nezenzo zabakhonzi abazinikeleyo. Abasebenzi be-gramente bafaka iliso ekudaleni amabhongo apho amabhongo, kodwa uvavanyo oluphezulu luhlala lukho. Ngokufunda ezi nkqubo zolawulo, sizixhobisa ukuba sifune ukuphendula nokugcina ulungelelwano lwe-Melika-Merika kangangeminyaka engama-30.

Ukuqhubeka ufunda, jonga i- i-Anvocation kwithala leencwadi leBhunga, i- Cornell Incaciso yolwazi lwezomthetho yeZiko lokwahlula amagunya, kunye neSiko loMbutho loKhuselo lweMithetho-siseko logcino-lwazi .