Ukwazisa: INkundla Ephakamileyo NjengoGuardian Wamalungelo omGaqo-siseko

INkundla ePhakamileyo yeUnited States isebenza njengommisi wokuphela kwenkululeko yomntu ngamnye kunye namandla karhulumente, isebenza njengomqulu woMgaqo-siseko, ingunobumba wezomthetho ochaza inkululeko kunye namandla karhulumente. Ngezigqibo eziphawuliweyo, iNkundla itolike imigaqo yesiseko `njengenkqubo efanelekileyo, ukhuseleko olulinganayo, kunye nenkululeko yokuthetha------ezinkulu , iindlela eziye zanwenwa ngokuphawulekayo okanye ngamaxesha athile, zinyanzelekelwe inkululeko yabemi. Eli nqaku linika ukuphanda okunzulu kwemiqatha yetyala yeNkundla ephakamileyo ebumbeneemeko eziyenziwa ngokusisiseko, ukunikela umxholo ongokwembali, ukuqiqaqamba okuhlala njalo, kunye nesiphumo esihlala njalo.

Madison (103): IBedrock of Judice Review

Eli tyala lavela kwisiphithiphithi sezobupolitika sonyulo lonyaka-1800, xa uMongameli okhululekileyo uJohn Adams wamisela iqela labagwebi abaphakathi kobusuku. Xa ulawulo olutsha phantsi koThomas Jefferson lwala ukunikela ii-oventies, uWilliam Marbury warhoxa ukuba amiselwe. IJaji enkulu uJohn Marshall, ebhalela iNkundla, yajongene nemeko echuliweyo yezopolitiko: ukunikezelwa kwemithetho kwakuza kutyeshelwa, ngexa ukungavumi ukuphelisa igunya lokugweba.

Uluvo lukaMarshall lwamisela umgaqo wohlolo lwezomthetho . [=wamandla eenkundla zephondo ukuvakalisa izenzo zowiso-mthetho kunye nezolawulo oluphezulu ngaphandle komthetho. Waqiqa ukuba "kungoko nangoko iphondo kunye nomsebenzi wesebe lejaji ukuchaza oko umthetho." Lo mba umisela isiseko sejaji yesebe likarhulumente ukusebenza njengesebe elilinganayo, ukutolika umGaqo-siseko kunye nokungalawulwa kwemithetho. Ngaphandle koMphathi-mthetho, iNkungali gunya lokuhlola iBhunga kunye noMongameli, iNkuswela igunya lokuhlola iBhunga kunye noMongameli, ukwenza amalungelo esizwe alandeleyo abenokungakwazi ukuphumelela.

Ukukhangela nzulu kwimvelaphi yohlolo lokugweba, bona [[FLT: 0]'isishwankathelo seMarbury v. Madison.

2. Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (1954): Ukuphelisa uHlahlo lweMveli

Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo yaqinisa amatyala amahlanu ahlukeneyo acel ’ umngeni ubuhlanga bomGaqo-siseko kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke. I-Placttiff, emelwa nguThur Fallshall kunye neNaACP Legal Defense Fund, yaphikisa ukuba "ukuzicalula kodwa zilingana" izibonelelo zazingalingani ngokwemvelo. Kwisigqibo esidibeneyo, iNtloko yeJaji Earl Warren yabhala ukuba i-Rruption "ibonisa ukuziva umgangatho ophantsi... okungachaphazela iintliziyo neengqondo zabo ngendlela engenakuze iphinde ipheliswe.

Inkundla yarhoxa ngokucacileyo [[FLT: 0] Plaby v. Ferguson (1896), eyayivumele ucalulo lobuhlanga phantsi kwemfundiso yokwahlukana kodwa elinganayo. Brown[ yavakalisa ukuba imithetho emisela izikolo zikawonke-wonke ngokwahlukeneyo kubafundi abamnyama nabamhlophe yayaphula iSinyuko se-145. [Iisigqibo savumela ukuba u-Clausle we-Intellite yoMmiselo we-D [Grandxmenti]. Ngexesha eli linye ityala alizange lisuse ngokukhawuleza i-stegdegit zikolo ezidityaniswe zikolo kwaye imigaqo engakumbi yemithetho efana [[FLT:] Cooperperper.[FFL:5] (195]) (inikeza isiseko esisemthethweni se-Imo-omatika-MMganiso ye-omatiko-odwa.)

Ukuqonda indima yeNAACP kolu phawu, tyelela [[FLT: 0] i NAACP Legal Defense Fund iphepha kwiBrown[[FLT: 1].

Ukubekwa kweliso kwimiba yesondo

Roe v. Wade wavela kumthetho waseTexas owathi wakwenza kwabiwa ukuqhomfa ngaphandle kokusindisa ubomi bukamama. I-lifecttiff, "Jane Roe" (Norma McCorvey), emela onke amabhinqa afuna ukuqhomfa. INkundla, kwisigqibo sesi-7-2, yaqonda ukuba ilungelo lomgaqo-mgaqo-siseko lokukhupha isisu lixhomekeke kwi-'Sct Processom Claus'smest Remendment" ye-(eencomment) yesigqibo somfazi sokuphelisa ukukhulelwa kwakhe. UJays Blackmun wamisela umiselo olusisichengephelo: ebudeni bomjikelo lokuqala, amareyimo angenakuthintela ukuqhomfa; ngexesha lesibini, bangakukhusela impilo kaManda; kwaye ebudeni besithathu, banokunqanda ukuqhomfa ngaphandle kokuba bempilo.

Eli tyala laba sisiseko samalungelo okuzala, ukuqhaqhatha amashumi eminyaka emfazwe yezobupolitika neyomthetho. Esi sigqibo saqinisekisa ukuba abafazi banenkululeko phezu kwemizimba yabo phakathi kwemida ethile, kodwa kwakhona yavuselela intsebenziswano echasene nokususwa kwemizimba. Ngo-2022, iNkundla yabaphathi begunya [] i-Roe ku [[FLT:]] [FLT]] [FLT]]. Jackson'S Health Organization , ibuyisela imimiselo yokuqhomfa kumazwe. [iiiiiiiiiiiintembelo yenkululeko nemigaqo yomthetho.]

Funda uluvo olupheleleyo [[QL: 0] ICornell Information yoLwazi lomthetho iphepha .

Miranda kunye neArizona (1966): Ukukhusela Amalungelo Omangalelwe

[[NKQUBO:0] uMenda v. Arizona, iNkundla yaqwalasela amatyala amane aqinisiweyo apho abamangalelwa babenze khona iingxelo zobutyala ngaphandle kokuba baxelelwe ngamalungelo abo. Umba wawusithi ngaba uKhuseleko lwesihlanu lokuHlaziya lufuna ukuba amapolisa alumkise amarhalatshantso phambi kokuncinwa kwegunya. IJaji enkulu uWarren, ebhala i-5-4, ibambelele kwelokuba abatshutshisi abanakusebenzisa amanqaku asuka kwimibuzo yetyala ngaphandle kokuba ukrokrelezo lokuqala lilunyulelwe ukuba lihlale lithe cwaka, ilungelo lokuhlala lithe cwaka, igosa kwigqwetha, nento enokuthi isetyenziswe kwinkundla.

Esi sigqibo sabangela ngoku-fumalial "Amalungelo e-Mura" aphindaphindwayo amaMelika kuwo onke amabali olwaphulo-mthetho. Yaba nempembelelo enkulu kumsebenzi wonyanzelo lomthetho: amasebe amapolisa aphinde aqwalasela imithetho yawo yokufuna umbuzo, kwaye abaninzi abarhanelayo baqalisa ukuphakamisa ilungelo labo lokucebisa. Abagxeki baphikisa ukuba [[[FLT: 0]]] [[FLT:]] Mandanda [[[1]]] [[FLT]]] inqanda [[1] inqanda ubuchule bokhuseleko olulukileyo, kodwa abaxhasi bayijonga njengesivikelo esibalulekile ekuvuleni ukuvunywa nokukhokelwa ngempazamo. [[FLT] [2]] [FLT]] [FLT:] [FLT]] [3] izilumkiso] ezilungelelekileyo] ngokuchasene nokhuseleko oluthe jikelele, ngokuchasene nokhuseleko oluthe jikelele [fcineneyo] [Fog.[FT.

UGqr. Virginia (1967): Ukuqinisekisa Ilungelo Lokutshata Kwabanye Abantu

-i-v. Virginia wawisa umthetho waseVirginia owawalelayo umtshato wobuhlanga. Richard Love, indoda emhlophe, noMildred Jeter, ibhinqa elimnyama, batshata eWashington, D.C., kodwa babanjwa eVirginia ngenxa yokwaphula umthetho wobuGqweba bobuHulumeni. INkundla yavumelana ukuba ukwahlulelwa kobuhlanga kwimithetho yomtshato kwaphula zombini i-Cometic Provices of the Irefection. Umphathi weSizwe uWarren Warren wabhala: "Inkululeko yokutshata ibhaliswe kudala iqashelwe njengenye lamalungelo abalulekileyo e-obuqu eluntlungela ulungiso lwenkululeko yabantu abakhululekileyo."

Le meko yaba luncedo ekususeni ulwahlulo lobuhlanga. Yaphelisa imithetho elwa nocalulo lobuhlanga kumazwe ali-16 ngelo xesha yaza yaseka ukuba umtshato lilungelo elisisiseko elingenakwaliwa ngokusisiseko kuhlanga. Ukubhadula [ kwasebenza njengesiqalo esingundoqo kumatyala okulingana alandelayo, kuquka obergefell v. Hodges. Isigqibo sabonisa ukutshintsha okubanzi kobukhongongozelo loburhulumente ukuba abangenakulawula ukuba abantu abanokutshata ngokusekelwe kwisizwe.

IUnited States v. Nixon (1974): Akukho Namnye Ongaphezu KoMthetho

Ngexesha lehlazo leWatergate, uMongameli Richard Nixon wathi unelungelo eliphezulu lokuvimba iikhasethi kunye namaphepha abhalwe nguLeon Jaworski ongumtshutshisi Okhethekileyo. INkundla nganye yala isaziso sikaNixon, ibambe ukuba ngoxa umongameli enelungelo elifanelekileyo lokunxibelelana ngokufihlakeleyo, elo lungelo alinakuyidlula imfuneko yobungqina kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho. UJaji omkhulu uWarren Burger wabhala ukuba "ayiyo imfundiso yokwahlulwa kwamandla, okanye imfuneko yokufihla imibandela ephezulu, ngaphandle kokunye okungakumbi, inokuthi igcine ilungelo elipheleleyo, elipheleleyo lobumongameli.""

Umthetho wanyanzelisa uNixon ukuba akhuphe iikhasethi, ezatyhila ukubandakanyeka kwakhe kwigqubuliso kwaye zakhokelela ekubeni arhoxe kancinane emva koko. United States v. Nixon wagxininisa umgaqo wokuba akukho mntu, kuquka uMongameli, ungaphezulu komthetho. Yamisela imida kwilungelo lolawulo lwegunya, ingakumbi xa ilungelelaniswe ngokuchasene nolawulo olulungileyo lwezobulungisa. Le meko ikhankanyiwe kwingxoxo yombuzo womongameli olandelayo, kuquka abo babandakanya ukuphengulula nokuphanda kwihambo yesebe eliphetheyo.

Umlinganiselo womtshato

I-Obergefell v. Hodges iqinisa amatyala asuka kumazwe amaninzi apho izibini ezingokwabelana ngesondo zavavanya ukuvalwa komtshato omnye. INkundla, kwisigqibo esingu-5-4, yabambelela ekubeni uGaqo-mva-mvano lweshumi elinesine lweSigqibo lufuna ukugunyazisa nokuqaphela imitshato efanayo. UJaji Anthony Kennedy ululo lukaninzi lwagxininisa ukuba ilungelo lokutshata lingundoqo, likhuselwe yiMixokelelwano ye-Aunie neSikhuseli soMganiseko. Wabhala ukuba uMgaqo-siseko "Inkululeko kubo bonke abafikelela kuyo," kwaye ukuba izibini-sexex - sesabelana iqhina elifanayo "umnqophisomganiso" omele ukulungiselela umtshato.

Umtshato osemthethweni osemthethweni ongokwasemthethweni kulo lonke ilizwe, ukubhukuqa ulungiso-siseko kunye nemimiselo echaza umtshato njengophakathi kwendoda nomfazi omnye. Wamela incopho yamashumi eminyaka yeLGBTQ+ advocacy kwaye walandela iimpumelelo zangaphambili ezifana i-Lawnce v. Texas [2003], ekwakungalawuleki kombutho. Oberge wawisa ushiye ityala eliphawula amalungelo angaqhelekanga, nangona iqhube impikiswano entlabatha ngenkululeko yonqulo, ukwamkelwa kwamalungelo omthetho, kunye nemidalo yamandla okulawula ukuqaphela amalungelo amatsha.

8. UShelby County v. Honger (203): Ukuthoba uMthetho wamaLungelo

Selby County v. Umbaleli weNkundla udibanise iCandelo 4 loMthetho wamaLungelo ka1965, eyayinenkqubo yokumisa ukuba ngawaphi amagunya afunekayo phambi kokutshintsha imithetho yokuvota. IJaji enkulu uJohn Roberts, ebhalela uninzi olu-5-4, yaphikisa ukuba olu cwangciso luxhomekeke kugcino-lwazi oluphelelwe lixesha ukususela ngo1964 nowe1972 kwaye yalwaphula u-"Ulawulo lomthetho olulinganayo" lwamazwe. INkundla yashiya icandelo 2 lomthetho othe gqojolisekileyo, nto leyo evumela ukuba umthetho wokuvota okunga.

Esi sigqibo saba neziphumo ezikhawulezileyo: sichaza ukuba ngaphambili kwakugqunywe ngemfuno engaphambili `````Phakathi kweyona mithetho yokuvota ingqongqo, iquka iimfuno ezingqongqo ze-ID zovoti, zinqumla ekuvotelweni kwasekuqaleni, nokuvalwa kwendawo zokuvota. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ukuba [ Shelby County [ ithe isithombo sesixhobo esisebenzayo sokulwa nocalucalulo lohlanga ekuvoteleni. Abaxhasi babambelela kwisigqibo sokuba le ndlela yayiyiyo i-achronalgentis kwaye ayimele ibekwe phantsi kobuveleli obungaqhelekanga. Imeko ibalase umzabalase ngokuqhubekayo kumalungelo okuvotalwa kunye nolungeleneyo phakathi kolawulo phakathi korhulumente norhulumente.

Kuhlalutyo olubanzi lweziphumo jonga i ingxelo yeBrennan Center ngeziphumo zeShelby County[[FLT: 1].

9. IKomishini yoNhlolo-nkqubo yeNtshona Koloni (2010): Imali yeNkcubeko

ICIIzenten yakwalela uMthetho weNguqulo (BRA) oManyeneyo. FEC ibandakanya ingeniso engaguquguqukiyo eyayifuna ukukhupha ifilimu egxeka uHillary Clinton kwaye iqhube izibhengezo ezikhuthazayo ngexesha eliphambili lonyaka ka-2008. IBpartan Campaigment Reformation Act (BRA) ayilwamkeli unxibelelwano olunjalo ngemibutho kunye namaqumrhu. INkundla ePhakamileyo, kwisigqibo esingu 5-4, yabetha loo miqathango, ibambe ukuba uHlaliso Lokuqala Lunyulo lukhusela inkampani kunye nokusebenzisa intetho yezobupolitika. UJajikennedy wabhala ukuba ink ezimeleyo, kwaneenze umngcipheko omkhulu wokunganyaniseki kwe-produration.

Umthetho wakhupha indyebo yemali kweyeMelika kwezobupolitika. Yavumela ukudalwa kwee-PAC ezinkulu, ezinokunyusa intengo ezingenasiphelo kubantu, kwimibutho, nakwimibutho yokuxhasa okanye ukulwa nabo batshate, lo gama nje bengadibani ngqo namaphulo. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ukuba [ i-Citizens United ithe impembelelo yabanikeli abazizityebi nabanomdla okhethekileyo, igqwetha idemokhrasi. Abaxhasi baphikisa ukuba ikhusela intetho engundoqo yezobupolitika kwaye ikhokelela kwingxoxo eyongezelelekileyo. Imeko ihlala ingomnye wezona mpikiswano eziphikisayo zephulo-mali neziphumo kummandla wezempempempe-mali.

10. Bonke abafazi ezempilo-ntle ku-. Hellerstedt (2016): Ukukhusela ukukhupha izisu

Whome's Health v. Hellerstedt wacel ’ umngeni imithetho emibini yaseTexas `H.B.' eyafuna abanikezeli bokuqhomfa ukuba bavume amalungelo kwisibhedlele esikufuphi kunye neziko lokuqhomfa ukuze bahlangabezane nemigangatho yamaziko otyando oluhlaziyiweyo. Ezi mfuneko zinokuba zivale iikliniki ezininzi kwilizwe. Inkundla, kwisigqibo se 5-3, yawaphula onke amalungiselelo, isebenzisa umgangatho "umthwalo onzima" ukusuka ku . . . .Ceyey uluvo loninzi lwembono lwaseBreyey'lksi sifumane ukuba imithetho ebekwe isithintelo ekufuneni nakuphinziseni ukuqhoxa.

Esi sigqibo siphinde saqinisekisa ukugcinwa komngxuma ongundoqo [[FLT: 0]. Isigqibo sigxininisa ukuba iinkundla zimele zilinganise iinzuzo zokuqhomfa. Noko ke, ukutyunjwa kwezigwebo eziqhelekileyo nguMongameli Trump uphelise lo mgca wesiqalo. Ngo-2021, iNkundla ivumela umthetho ofanayo wase Texas (S.B. 8) ukuba ithathe isiphumo ngokusebenzisa inkqubo entsha yokuqinisekisa, kwaye [[FL:] DoFF: 5] [2] [202]] [3] [FT]] [FFT] [3]]

Isiphelo: Impembelelo Engapheliyo Yezigqibo Zophawu

La matyala alishumi abonisa indima enzulu yeNkundla ePhakamileyo ekuchazeni amalungelo omgaqo-siseko kunye nenkululeko yabemi eUnited States. Ukusuka ekumiseleni uhlolo lomthetho kwi- Marbury [ ukukhusela ukulingana komtshato ] .Oberge , isigqibo ngasinye siye sayila indlela yelizwe elisemthethweni kwaye sibonakalisa ngamaxesha aqhutyweyo [“iNkutshintsha okukakhulu.]. Ngexesha ukwakhiwa kweNkundla nentandabulumko kuqhubeka kuphembelela ukuphembelela impikiswano ngenkululeko, ukulingana, nokulunga, nokusesikweni. Ukuqonda ezi zigweba ziko kubalulekile kuye nabani na ofuna ukuqonda amandla omthetho-omgaqo-siseko we-Melikanst .