Isiseko Sembali Segunya Elilawulayo

Umongameli we-United States uye wafumana utshintsho oluphawulekayo ukususela oko uGeorge Washington wathatha isifungo sokusebenza. Abalawuli bomGaqo-siseko, abafuni ukwahlula amandla olawulo ababelwele ukuphunyuka, iQumrhu II eliyilwe ngabom linentetho ebanzi kodwa engaqondakaliyo. UJames Madison waphikisana noFederali No. 51 ukuba umphathi ophetheyo uya kuba “ngoyena ubuthathaka kumasebe amathathu” ngenxa yokuba wayengenawo amandla endlu yowiso-mthetho wesikhwakhwaba nenkululeko ye-judiary. Kwangoku ke kwisizukulwana esithile, oomongameli baqalisa ukubeka igunya ngaphaya koko kwakulindelwe ngabaqululeki. Intloko ithetha ukuba imfazwe ye-Chulument, i-New Deal, kunye ne-posi-9/11 yesizwe sokhuseleko luphawulo olubalulekileyo lokufikelela kolawulo lolawulo.

Ukuqonda le ndaleko kubalulekile kuye nabani na ofunda urhulumente waseMerika. Umongameli asingombutho othe ngqo; uqhelanisa neemeko ezimanqam, ukutshintshana kwiimbono zikawonke-wonke, kunye namabhongo abo bonke abalawuli. UmGaqo-siseko wantlandlolo wanika umongameli amandla okulawula umthetho, ukumisela amagosa karhulumente (ngemvume yeCante), kwaye ukhonza njengenkokeli yemikhosi exhobileyo. Kodwa la mandla adweliswe ngokucazulu angqineka anele kwiimfuno zohlanga olukhulayo.

Uyilo lomgaqo-siseko

Inqaku II, Icandelo 1 lezixhasi “igunya elilawulayo” kumongameli omnye. Oku kusetyenziswa kwemiqathango, ngexa kufutshane, kwaba sisiseko samagunya amakhulu achaziweyo. UAlexander Hamilton, kuFederali No. 70, waxhasa i-“sigqeba esikhaliphileyo” njengokuyimfuneko kurhulumente olungileyo. Isifungo somongameli soku“khusela, ukukhusela nokukhusela uMgaqo-siseko” sicatshulwe ukuthethelela izenzo zokulwa ukuphelisa i-habeas corpus. Kodwa umGaqo-siseko ukwamisa imida ecacileyo: umongameli akanakuvakalisa imfazwe (iCanreverner), akanakufumana imali efanelekileyo, kwaye kufuneka afune imvume yezivumelwano neenkokeli ezinkulu.

Izinto Zangaphambili Nezandayo

UGeorge Washington waseka imizekelo egxekayo, kuquka ukusetyenziswa kwelungelo eliphezulu kunye nenkqubo yekhabhathinethi. UThomas Jefferson’s Louisiana Purchase (1033) wavavanya imida yomGaqo-siseko ````''''''''. Wafumana umhlaba omkhulu ongenalo igunya elicacileyo lomgaqo-siseko, emisela umzekelo wokuthatha inyathelo lomongameli. Ukusebenzisa kuka-Andrew Jackson Jackson njengesixhobo somgaqo-siseko, kunokuba ahlole nje umthetho ongekho sigqeba. UJackson wanyusa iindleko-mali ezilishumi elinesibini, ngaphezu kwabo bonke abalawuli bakhe bedityanisiwe, ephikisa ukuba umongameli umelo lwesebe olulinganayo.

Owona mlinganiselo uphawulekayo wezenzo wenziwa ngexesha lobungangamsha bukaAbraham Lincoln. Ukujongwa kwe-secession kunye nemfazwe yamakhaya, uLincoln uxhome i-habeas corpus, uvingcago, kunye neenkundla zemikhosi ezigunyazisiweyo ngezantsi, `zonke ngaphandle kwemvume yangaphambili. Wazithethelela ezi zenzo ngokucaphula umsebenzi wakhe wokukhusela i-Union. ISiphatho sikaLincoln simi njengomsebenzi obalaseleyo wegunya elilawulayo, obekwe njengomlinganiselo womkhosi phantsi komphathi wakhe wegunya elikhulu. Inkundla ephakamileyo kamva yaxhasa ezi zenzo ezininzi, kodwa umzekelo wamandla aphambili ongqubanawo ngquzuzwano lwahlala.

Iindidi Zamandla Omongameli Zicaciswe

Abaphengululi bawahlulahlula ngokwamaqela amagunya omongameli ngokweentlobo ezintathu eziyintloko: avakaliswa, achazwayo nanemvelaphi yawo. Ludidi ngalunye luneenjongo ezahlukileyo ezingokwasemthethweni nezisebenzisekayo.

Amandla Abonakalisweyo

Ezi zidweliswe ngokucacileyo kwiGatya II. Ziquka amandla okuyalela umkhosi, ukunika iziphene kunye nokuxolela (ngaphandle kwakwiimeko ezingamkelekanga), ukwenza izivumelwano (ngekokuvunyelwa kweeNdlu ezimbini ezinesithathu), ukumisela izalathisi, iijaji zeNkundla ePhakamileyo, namanye amagosa (ngesiqinisekiso seNtlanganiso), kwaye afumana ii-ofisi zamanye amazwe. Amandla abonakalisweyo abumba isiseko segunya legunya eliphezulu, kodwa asoloko engacacanga. Umzekelo, umongameli “uMlawuli kwiNtloko yomkhosi noMkhosi” kodwa umGaqo-siseko akachazi ukuba kuthethwa ukuba yintoni ekusebenzeni ngexesha loxolo okanye kwimfazwe elinganiselwe.

Amandla Asetyenzisiweyo

Ithenjiwe kwi-Iafred and Theign Claus (Icandelo I, Icandelo 8) lidibene neViseting Claus of Article II, amandla achaziweyo avumela umongameli ukuba athathe izenzo ezingadweliswanga ngokucacileyo kodwa eziyimfuneko ekuphumezeni amagunya avakalisiweyo. INkundla ePhakamileyo yawamkela lo mgaqo Kule ndawo i-Neagle [1890]), ilawula ukuba umongameli unegunya elingaphaya komthetho olawulayo xa ikhusela abaphathi beququke i-ofisi ye-omatilathisi (EOP) ephetheyomhlanje ngo193939, eyandisa ubuchule bolawulo ngaphezu kwegosasakhelo.

Amandla Emvelo

La ngamandla adibanisa iofisi ngendalo yayo njengegunya elilawulayo lesizwe esilawulayo. Amandla emvelo adlula ngaphaya kwazo zombini ezibonisiweyo nemithombo ecacileyo. Asoloko ecelwa ngexesha longxamiseko lwesizwe. Umongameli uFranklin D. Roosevelt ugunyazisa ukuququzelelwa kwamaJaphani (Umthetho 906) axhomekeke kumandla emfazwe angokwemvelo, kamva axhaswa ku Kormatsu v. United States (194). Ingxoxo ye-AProtegoriary malunga nokubetha kwe-drone kunye neenkqubo zokuhlola i-khompyutha ithetha rhoqo ngegunya elifuzeneyo kukhuseleko lwesizwe.

Umatshini wesenzo esingalandekiyo: Imiyalelo yegunya kunye nemeyaranda

Imiyalelo yegunya elilawulayo iphakathi kwezona zixhobo zibonakalayo zobumongameli. Zizizindululo ezisisibophelelo ezisemthethweni ezinikwe abameli besizwe ngaphandle kwemvume engqalileyo. Nangona umGaqo-siseko ungakhankanyi imiyalelo yegunya eliphakamileyo, bafumana kwinkonzo yeQumrhu II “ukunyamekela ukuba imithetho iphumezwe ngokuthembekileyo.” ngokwembali, imiyalelo yegunya yasetyenziswa ukwenzela ulawulo lwesiqhelo. Kodwa kwinkulungwane yama-20, baba zizithuthi zeenguqu ezinkulu zenkqubo.

UMongameli uHarry Truman wasebenzisa uLawulo oluPhezulu 9981 ukuphelisa imikhosi exhobileyo. Umongameli uBarack Obama’s Defected Action for Dormes (DACA) wakhusela izigidi zabaphambukeli abangaxelwanga ekugxothweni. Umongameli Donald Trump wakhupha imiyalelo yezolawulo oluphezulu ekufudukeni, ukurhwebelana, kunye nokuthintelwa. Imiyalelo yegunya ilinganiselwe: azinakuphikisana nemimiselo ekhoyo, kwaye iBhunga linokuzibeka endaweni yayo ngomthetho. Iinkundla zingababetha phantsi. Ngaphezu koko, ilandela i-Prodenti ingazibuyisela emva koko ngekhefu yepeni.

Imisebenzi yobuMongameli kunye nezibhengezo zisebenza iinjongo ezifanayo kodwa zisetyenziswa ngokusezantsi. Imetranda isoloko ikhombe imigaqo engqalileyo yolungiselelo kwaye ayipapashwa kwiFederal Register. Izahlulelo ziqhelekile ngokwesithethe (njengokuvakalisa uSuku lweSizwe seDog) kodwa zinokuthwala amandla asemthethweni (njengenkqubo yokukhupha isantya). Zizonke, ezi zixhobo zingasetyenziswanga mntu zinye zivumela oomongameli ukuba bagqithe kwiindlu zowiso-mthetho ezivaliweyo, kodwa kwakhona zimema oomongameli ukuba bakhuphele iindlu zowiso-mthetho kunye ne-gosavelw.

Iingqinipho - bume Nokulungelelana Okuqheliselwayo

Inkqubo yokuhlola nokulinganisela yenzelwe ukuthintela ukuphanga. IKhomishini inezixhathiso ezininzi: ingasikeka inkxaso-mali, ingakhutshwa, ingabi nakusetyenziswa, ithethelelwa, igqwethelwe umongameli, iphinde ichaze umongameli. Ijaji ingavakalisa izenzo zegunya ezingekho semthethweni. Noko ke, ezi nhlolo zisebenza ngokungafaniyo. IBhunga lisoloko libambnamela umongameli kwiinkqubo zamanye amazwe, kwaye iinkundla ziyathandabuza ukungenelela “kwimibuzo ye-i-athorime” okanye kwimicimbi yokhuseleko lohlanga.

Izixhobo zoMbutho: Amandla Okuthenga Nolawulo

UMgaqo-siseko unika igunya kwiNgqungquthela yokulawula ukuququzelela. Ukuba umongameli usungula iphulo lomkhosi elingagunyaziswanga, iBhunga lingala ukulixhasa. Oku kwenzeka ngexesha lemfazwe yaseVietnam, xa iBhunga leSigunya leWar Powers Resombululo (1973) kuMongameli Nixon, ukuzama ukulinganisela amandla kamongameli okuqhuba imikhosi ngaphandle kokumiswa kwesivumelwano. Kodwa umongameli ngamnye ukususela oko ebeye waphikisa isigqibo kwigunya eliphezulu. Ukuva okuphezulu, ukuva okuncinci kwe-Propoenas, kunye nokuphengulula kuyaqhubeka kuhlola. Uxilonga oluphakathi kwelungelo lomphathi ophezulu nomphathiswayo lubungabaphathi bomthetho lungumgqeqeqesi ophinda-phindene, njengoko kubonwa ngexesha lolawulo lwezinyuso mkhosi waseWatergate kunye nowe.

Ukuhlolisiswa Kwesigwebo Nemida Yaso

INkundla ePhakamileyo inamandla okuhlola izenzo zomongameli. Amatyala e-Landmark aquka umqulu osezantsi we-Stall Comment & Tube Co. Sayer (1852), owavala ukuxhuzula kwemijukujelwa kwentsimbi ngexesha lemfazwe yeKhoreya. UJaji Robert Jackson wamisa ulwakhiwo oludumileyo lwesakhiwo sombutho we-trartite: amandla omongameli akwinqanaba lawo xa esebenza ngogunya-mvume we-console, ekusebenzeni kwayo okuchaza okuchasene nomthetho weBhunga loMbutho, kwaye “kwindawo yokuphela kobusuku xa ingqungquthela” xa ithe clo. Le mithetho yemithetho ishiyeka kaRhulumente ephambili ihlala ihleli kulwano oluno oluphambili lwegunya lolawulo lwezomthetho.

Kodwa uhlolo lwetyala lucotha kwaye luthatha inyathelo. Oomongameli bangathatha kuqala; iinkundla zithatha iminyaka ukulawula. Ngaphezu koko, iNkundla ePhakamileyo inike umongameli isibanzi kwimicimbi yangaphandle, njengakwi United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp. [1936], ebiza umongameli ngokuthi “lilungu likarhulumente worhulumente kwinkalo yolwalamano lwezizwe ngezizwe." Le mfundiso iye yasetyenziswa ukuthethelela amandla omhlaba.

Iphulo: Ingxaki Ephambili Kwezobupolitika

Ukuvota kwendlu yinkqubo enenyathelo elibini: ivoti kumanqaku okungakhuthazi (ngakoninzi oluqhelekileyo), kwaye iNdlu yeeNtsimbi ibamba ityala elifuna ivoti ezimbini-ntathu ukuvalelwa nokususwa. Koomongameli abathathu kuphela abacetyisiweyo (UAndrew Johnson, uBill Clinton, uDonald Trump kabini), kwaye akukho nanye eyagwetywa yiBhunga. Amandla angenagunya ngako asisisixhobo esithe ngqo, esinqabileyo nesisetyenziswa kakhulu.

Igunya loBuongameli eCris: Ukusuka eLincoln ukuya kwi-COVID-19

Iingozi zesizwe ziye zandisa igunya lomongameli ngokwembali. Ukuxolelwa kwe-habeas corpus nokusetyenziswa koomatiloshe kwamisela umzekelo. UFranklin D. Roosevelt weNew Deal nemfazwe yehlabathi II zabona ulwando olukhulu lweziko lolawulo lorhulumente kunye namandla aphezulu. Wakhupha imiyalelo engaphezulu kwama-3 700 yolawulo oluphezulu kwaye wasungula amaqumrhu afana ne-Ofisi ye-War Information kunye ne-Imprition Board ye-War Production ngaphandle kwegunya elithe ngqo.

Kutshanje, ukuhlasela okungu-9/11 kwakhokelela kuMthetho wokugunyazisa Ukusetyenziswa Komkhosi Wasemkhosini (AMF) ngo-2001 apho iBhunga lathi lathi laa maqela mabini ladlula khona. Oomongameli bobabini baye basebenzisa le AUMF ukuthethelela isenzo somkhosi nxamnye namaqela amaphekula kumazwe amaninzi, nokugunyazisa iinkqubo zokuhlola phantsi koMthetho we-USA PATRIOTTTTT. Isifo somlibo se-19 sabona oomongameli besebenzisa uMthetho weDefense Production, ukuvalela, kunye namaziko angqalileyo amaziko asekuhlaleni ukukhulula ukuphuhlisa amayeza. Ingxaki nganye iqinisekisa ukuphuhlisa: iBhunga lokwexeshana linika igunya lokwexeshana, kwaye oomongameli basoloko belichasa ukulinyaza kwangoko kuthe konakalisa.

Amadabi angoku Angaphezulu Kwamandla

Iindawo eziliqela ezichaza iingxoxo zanamhlanje eziphathelele igunya lomongameli.

Ilungelo elisiGqebayo noLawulo loLwazi

Abalawuli bathi banelungelo lokungaluvumeli ulwazi kwiNgqungquthela neenkundla ukukhusela icebiso eliyimfihlo. INkundla Ephakamileyo yavuma eli lungelo kuUnited States v. Nixon (19974) kodwa yala ityala elipheleleyo. Kuqheliselo lwangoku, iiBhunga zisoloko zivavanya ilungelo eliphezulu, elikhokelela ekuhlatyelweni okugqithisiweyo nokungaphunyelwa kwezopolitiko. Ulawulo lwe-Biden, umzekelo, lucela ilungelo eliphezulu lokuvala ukukhululwa kwamaxwebhu athile anxulumene nokhuthulo lwe-Afghanistan.

Ukusetyenziswa komkhosi womkhosi ngaphandle kogunyaziso loMbutho

IRevolution yeWar War Powers ifuna umongameli ukuba azise iNgqungquthela kwisithuba seeyure ezingama-48 zokuqhuba imikhosi nokuyirhoxa emva kweentsuku ezingama-60 ngaphandle kokuba igunyaziwe. Ngokuqhelekileyo, oomongameli beli thuba bewugqithile lo mda. Ungenelelo lwangowango-2011 waseLibya phantsi koMongameli Obama aluzange lufumane imvume yombutho, kwaye ulawulo lwamaphulo luphikisa ukuba lo msebenzi awuzange ube “ngunobutshaba.” Ukubulala kwe-Gawula lase-Iran u-Soeleim, ngumthetho ka-Trump oye waphakamisa imibuzo efanayo. Ingqungquthela iye yazama ukuphinda i-phinda i-phinda i-phinda i-phinde i-phinda i-AUMF, kodwa ayiphumelelangaphumelelanga.

Ukunyanzeliswa nokuLahla koMkhosi

Abalawuli baye basebenzisa inyathelo elilawulayo ukubumba inkqubo yokufuduka kaninzi. IDefered Action for Parents of America (DAPA) yathintelwa ziinkundla kwi- United States v. Texas (20). Ukuvalwa kohambo lwamaSilamsi-majorthiki ngamazwe amaninzi kwaye lwasinda kwingxubusho yeNkundla ePhakamileyo kunyaka Trump v. Hawaii (2017).[FLTH)). Imithetho emininzi ye-Trump-era kodwa kwakhona ijongenemingeni enkundla yokuphelisa kwakhe “imeko yaseMexico". Le meko ibonise imiqathango yezenzo zezenzo ezizi-OMgangatho: ingamisa imiyalelo, kunye nomongameli abalandelayo.

Ukuhlaziywa Kwezobupolitika Nokwanda Kwamandla Alawulayo

I-Gridlock kwiBhunga iye yaqhubela abalawuli ukuba benze izinto ngaphandle kwesizathu. Xa umthetho ungenzeki, oomongameli basebenzisa imiyalelo yabalawuli, i-actranda, kunye nomthetho wokufumana iinjongo zomgaqo-nkqubo. Le ntsingiselo yi-bipartisan kwaye ukuzirhweba. Umongameli ngamnye wongeza kwisakhiwo, kwaye umongameli olandelayo uyisebenzisela iinjongo ezahlukeneyo. Abanye abaphengululi baphikisa ukuba oku kunciphisa uxanduva lwedemokhrasi kuba utshintsho olukhulu lwenkqubo yemithetho lwenzeka ngaphandle kwengxoxo yomthetho. Abanye baphikisa ukuba lulu yimfuneko kwinkqubo yokwaphula umthetho.

Umphumo ngumongameli onamandla nobuthathaka. Oomongameli bangafeza lukhulu ngesenzo sokulawula, kodwa ezo zenzo zisoloko zisemngciphekweni wokubuyisela utshintsho, ukubekwa kwetyala, okanye ukulawulwa kwequmrhu. Ulungelelwaniso lwamandla lusoloko luphikiswa, lubunjwe yimibandela ethile, ukusekwa kweBhunga loLuntu, nokunyamezela kukawonke-wonke kwinyathelo lobumongameli.

Intetho yolawulo oluphezulu lwecandelo

Impikiswano ekhulayo yemibutho engokwasemthethweni neyezobupolitika “yokulawula urhulumente onegunya”"" ingcamango yokuba umongameli unegunya elipheleleyo kwisebe eliphetheyo kwaye uyakwazi ukususa nawuphi na umqeshwa ngaphandle kwesizathu. Le ngcamango yacatshulwa nguMongameli Trump ngexesha lokungagunyazi kwakhe kokuqala kunye noMongameli Biden ekumiseni ulawulo lolawulo lweziko. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ukuba iyakuphelisa ukuzimela kwabameli abafana neFBI kunye neFederal Reserve. Inkundla ePhakamileyo ayiyamkelanga ngokupheleleyo ingcamango, kodwa izigqibo zakutshanje ezifana [[FLTLLD:0] uMthetho we-LLLC v.S .UNIversity Proviceal Provicity Burence Bureagence Bureaunt [[FLD:20]] 2020]) icebisa ulawulo lolawulo lomongameli.

Isiphelo: Impikiswano Ehlala Ikho

Amandla omongameli akami ngamaxesha ahlukeneyo okanye aphelelanga. Abunjwa ngumGaqo-siseko, imizekelo yembali, kunye nokusetyenziswa kwamaziko ezobupolitika. Abafundi bakarhulumente waseMerika kufuneka baqonde ukuba amandla olawulo lunamandla okusebenza .-ukuyandisa kwiimeko ezinzima, ukudibana ngexesha loxolo, kwaye ukusoloko kuphikiswa yiBhunga kunye neenkundla. Njengoko imingeni emitsha iphuma `````kwizisongelo zemozulu'.) imida yegunya likamongameli iza kuqhubeka ivavanywa. Ukuqonda le ndaleko asiyo nje ingeniso yemfundo yemfundo; kubalulekile ukuba ube ngummi wedemokhrasi apho isigqeba sidlala indima esemgangathweni.

Ukuze ufunde ngokubhekele phaya, bona [[FLT: 0] i-Anvocation yohlalutyo oluneenkcukacha lwenqaku II. I-Melika Bar Association’s Division for Public Education[[FLT: 3] inika ugcino-lwazi lokwahlula amagunya. Imizekelo yembali ibhalwe kakhulu kwi [[FLT: 4.] uqokelelo lolawulo lwesizwe lolawulo lolawulo lwezibonelelo [[FLT]