UbuGaqo-siseko yintanda-bulumko esemthethweni etolika umGaqo-siseko osekelwe ekuqondeni kwasekuqaleni kwalo xwebhu ngexesha ekwamiswa ngalo. Le ndlela iphembelela iingxoxo ezininzi ngamalungelo omGaqo-siseko, kuquka amalungelo okungangeni ngokomthetho wase-U. Kwiminyaka engamashumi akutshanje, ubuqali buye basuka kwintlupheko ukuya kutoliko oluphambili lomgaqo-siseko, ukubumba izigqibo eziphambili zeNkundla ePhakamileyo nemigaqo-siseko. Ukuqonda indlela imigaqo yezobukhombathiso esetyenziswa ngayo kwiimeko ezingezomGaqo-siseko, kufuneke uhlolo oluconono lwembali, lolwimi, kunye nokuqiqanda ukugweba.

Isiseko Sobuseki

I-FLT: 1 ikholelwa ukuba intsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko imiswe ngexesha lokusetyenziswa kwayo. Kukho iinguqu ezininzi kwisiseko soqobo, kodwa eyona iphambili namhlanje [[FLT: 0] yoluntu lwangaphambili intsingiselo yentsingiselo yoqobo, ebuza ukuba umntu onengqondo ungayiqonda into yokuba umbhalo uthetha ukuba wamkelekile. Oku kwahlukile kwiinguqulelo zangaphambili ezibhekiswa kwinjongo ephambili yeFramers. UJaji Antonin Scalia wayengummeli ophambili wale ndlela, ephikisa into yokuba unika ukuxelwa kwangaphambili, ukugweba, ukunyazisa, ukuchasana neenkqubo zedemodemokhrasi.

Izazi-nkqubo zamandulo ziyayikhaba ingcamango “yomGaqo-siseko ophilayo” oziguqulayo ngemiqathango yentlalo. Endaweni yoko, baphikisa ngelithi utshintsho lomgaqo-siseko luyindlela efanelekileyo yokutshintsha. Lo mgaqo wendlela yokusebenza uneziphumo ezithe ngqo zendlela amalungelo aphela ngayo. Ngokunjalo abo bangadweliswanga ngokucacileyo (achazwanga ngokungqalileyo. Abangengawo amanani, abangazange bachazwe kakuhle ngenkulungwane ye-18, uhlalutyo lwenzululwazi yezobukhomfazi besoloko bejika kumagama achanileyo emimiselo yemithetho, efana “abantu,”“ abanovengi,” okanye “oomatila.”

[[UMTL:0] Icebo elipheleleyo: kwinkomfa yeenkcukacha zengcamango yoqobo, bona i incoko yendlela yokuchaza intsingiselo yento [.

Amalungelo omGaqo-siseko kunye nokungabikho komgaqo-siseko

Amalungelo abantu abangengomalungu phantsi komthetho wase-U.S. anikela uvavanyo oluntsonkothileyo lokhuseleko kunye nothintelo. Olunye umgaqo-siseko uqinisekisa ngokucacileyo ubhekisa ku- “ooogcuntswana,” njengakuMalungelo okanye kuma-Immunio Claus weMpanzi we-145th Amendment. Amanye, njenge-ICS Procession ne-Livince Claus Provicence, athetha ‘ nawuphi na umntu” okanye “nabani na ophantsi kolawulo lwakhe.” Lo mahluko wombhalo ukhokelele kwisakhiwo esinesiqu esinesiqu esinesiqu esisiphekeleleyo: amalungelo athile athathwa njengabantu bonke abakwimo wokufuduka, ngoxa amanye amalungelo egcinelwe abemi.

Amalungelo Asisiseko Ahlaziywa Kubo Bonke Abantu

INkundla Ephakamileyo ikudala ikholelwa ukuba i-Actry Procession Claus of the Findtext of the Findre Complified kunye ne-List Clause of the 14neth Amendment ikhusela “nabani na,” kuquka nomntu ongengomntu okhoyo ngokusemthethweni okanye ongekho semthethweni. Amatyala eLandmark abonisa lo mgaqo. YUKIK [[[FLT:]] V [1866] [1866], iNkuNkuvolu yenze umthetho weSan Francisco osetyenziswa ngokungekho mthethwenikazi ngokusemthethweni ngokomthetho nxamnye nabaphambukeli, ebambe ityala elijongeneyo kwisigwebo esiphezulu kunye nesohlwayo egwetyiweyo ngenxa ye-Genethi."

Kutshanje, uMathews v. Diatz [1997], iNkundla yaxhasa imfuneko yeMedicare elungele ukufumaneka kwiminyaka emihlanu yokuhlala, kodwa yaqonda ukuba kwanangeyomiqikela inamalungelo afanelekileyo afanelekileyo kulawulo lwezibonelelo zikarhulumente. Kwaye uZvydas v. Davis (2001], iNkukholelwa ukuba urhulumente akanakuhlala ngokungenasiphelo emva komyalelo wokugqibela wokususwa, ngenxa yokuba uMxokelelwa-mthetho wesihlanu usebenza kubo bonke abantu abakhoyo eUnited States, kungakhathaliseki ukuba imeko yabo yokufuduka.

Ezi zigqibo zisekelwe kulwazi lombhalo kunye nembali yokuba ibinzana elithi “umGaqo-siseko” liquka wonke umntu okwingingqi okanye ummandla wase-U.S. Izazi ngembali zisoloko zihlolisisa umongo wembali: ngexesha lokuFunyaniswa, “indoda” yayiqondwa kumthetho oqhelekileyo ukuquka abaphambukeli kunye nabemi ngokufanayo, imbono eqiniswe yi-Ninth kunye neSinyusi-Mpanzi se-Hendeth ezibhekisa ku-“bantu” ngengqiqo ebanzi.

Amalungelo Agcinelwe Abemi

Ngokuchaseneyo, amanye amalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko amisela amalungelo “abemi abahlukeneyo.” Amalungelo okanye amaGawulayo akhusela“ iimfuno okanye ukugonywa kwabemi base-United States,” leyo iNkundla Ephakamileyo iye yayichaza kancinci, ngokuyintloko ibhekisa kumalungelo afana nokuvota kunyulo lwamaqumrhu, uhambo oluphakathi kwemibutho, kunye nokufikelela kwiinkundla zephondo. UMthetho weSindululo weshumi elinesine uqobo ngokwawo ukhusela “iimali ezi-obhanki” (kobabini i-United States kunye ne-Rommental) kunye“ nezigwebo zemithetho eyahlukeneyo.

Ukuthulula kulelona lungelo liphambili limiselwe abemi. UMgaqo-siseko, ngeMiqathango ye 14 kunye neyeshumi elinesihlanu, imivalo ichaza ngokusuka ekubekeni imvume yabemi yokuvota, ithetha ukuba abangomagxalasi abanalo ilungelo elisemthethweni lokuvota kwiphondo okanye kunyulo. Oku kuye kwaqiniswa ngamatyala anje Foley v. Connelie [10] [10], nto leyo exhasa imfuneko yokuba amapolisa abe ngabemi, kwaye Cabell v. Chavez-Sactdo][FLT] [12], eyavumela ukuba ingabikho e-Fontiti-entinentine.[198], eyavumela ukuba amagosa amele uxolo kwiiNkungalamyuwane.

Iingenelo zentlalo-ntle zikwathintelwe. UMthetho wobuqu we-Chesters and Work Frounsionation Act ka-1996 (PRWORA) umisela imithetho engqongqo engekho ngqiqweni, ikhupha inkoliso yabemi abasisigxina abasemthethweni ekufumaneni iinzuzo zemali karhulumente ngokweminyaka emihlanu yokuqala. INkundla ePhakamileyo i-Mathews[[FLT]'s [[FLT]] [[FLT]] [1] kwaye kamva [[FLT]] ikhupha ukhuseleko lweHomeland Securence v v. Regets zeYunivesithi yaseCalifornia yaseCalifornia[FLT] [20] yavuma ukuba umgaqo wobugqaliselo ngokomthetho wokufuduka nomahluko osekelwe kwiinkqubo zobugqebangezo eziyingenelo ngokuzingeneyo.

Iingcaciso zoBuqaba zaMalungelo angaSebenziyo

Izazi ngemvelaphi azinakucinga ukuba ikhona into eyenzekayo kwisigqibo sabo ngamalungelo angengangeniyo. Ingxoxo isoloko ixhomekeke ekubeni ilungiselelo elithile lomgaqo-siseko lisebenzisa igama elithi “i-emper" okanye“ i-ether,” kwaye intsingiselo yantlandlolo kawonke-wonke ithethelela olo mahluko.

Isiphumezi - mpikiswano Esiyimfuneko Ukuba Ngummi

Izazi ngentlalo ezininzi ziphikisa ngelithi uMgaqo-siseko wenzelwe ukukhusela amalungelo abemi. Bakhomba kuMgaqo-siseko wantlandlolo, obhekisela “kwimfuno ezifanelekileyo zoMongameli, iSenator, kunye nabameli, kunye noNodiyaste of Articus III. UGawulayo lwe1445th Demigramenty Claus wongezwe ekubhukuqeni [[FL:] uDred Scott v. Sandford[FLT] [1857] kwaye uqinisekisa ukuba bonke abantu abazalelwe eUnited States bangabemi. Kule mbono, ukuqonda kwasekuqaleni amalungelo alinganayo ezobupolitika abaphambukeli. Umzekelo, ukuvota kwakulinganiselwe kumazwe amaninzi akwimithetho efunyenweyo, kunye nokuhlala ixesha elide kwakufuneka abemi bamanye amazwe angooomashishini.

Umba ongundoqo: Kwikhaya le-United States v. Verdugo-Urquidez (1990), iNkundla eyahluliweyo yathi ukhuseleko lweSine Sommisi-zinzo olungekho ngqiqweni noxhwaleko alusebenzi kwikhaya lomphambukeli eliseMexico. IJaji enkulu Rehnquist, ibhala uluvo lwantlalo: “abantu abakhuselwayo luLuhlulo lwesine loHlaziselo lubhekisela kudidi lwabantu abayinxalenye yoluntu lwesizwe. Oku kucebisa ukuba amalungelo athile omgaqo-siseko angawomntlalo-ntle kunye nobumi.

I- “Persin” kunye no-“Citen” Umahluko

Abanye abaxhasi bembali baphikisa ukufundwa okumxinwa, bephawula ukuba umGaqo-siseko usebenzisa ngokuphindaphindiweyo “umGaqo-siseko” kulungiselelo olumalunga nenkululeko esisiseko. IsiHlanzi soMphetho sesihlanu ne-14th sikhusela “nabani na,” njengoko uMphengululo wesine (ukuphengulula okungenangqiqo) kunye noMphetho-Mpanzi weSithandathu (amalungelo okuvavanywa kolwaphulo-mthetho). Aba basunguli baphikisa ngelithi aba baqulungela ngabomrhu bakhetha“ijini” kumbandela obandakanya ubomi, inkululeko, kunye nempahla, bebonisa injongo yokwandisa ukhuseleko kubo bonke abantu abakhoyo kwigunya.

Le mbono ixhaswa ngumsebenzi wembali. Ngexesha lokuFunyaniswa, abaphambukeli babephantsi komthetho omnye kwaye babenokumangalelwa kwiinkundla zomthetho zorhulumente phantsi kolawulo lolawulo oluhlukeneyo. IAlien Tort Signte ka 1789 ivumela abaphambukeli ukuba bazise iisuti zetorts ezinziwe ngokuchasene nomthetho wezizwe. IBhunga lokuQala, elaliquka iiFramers, zazinemithetho enika ukhuseleko olufanelekileyo kwimibutho yabaphambukeli elindele ukugxothwa. Ezi zenzo zamaxesha aphakathi zicebisa ukuba ukuqonda kwantlandlolo olungelulo-cizenjngelu njengamalungelo emongo ezininzi.

[[UMTL: 0] Icebo le projekti: Ingxoxo yophando ishwankathelwe kakuhle kule [[FLT:] Georgown Immigration Law Journal nqaku [[FLT: 3]].

Iimpikiswano Zezomthetho Zexesha Elilandelayo

Ukungavumelani kwabantu kuyaqhubeka kuchaphazela iingxabano zale mihla ngokunyanzelisa abantu ukuba bangenelwe ekufudukeni, ukungenelwa kwabantu nokuvota.

Unyanzeliso loshenxiso kunye nenkqubo elindelekileyo

Imigaqo-nkqubo yolawulo lolawulo lweTrump yakhuthaza amatyala amaninzi avavanyiweyo kwimigaqo yantlandlolo. Ityala lokuvalwa kohambo, Trump v. Hawaii (2017), ibandakanya igunya likaMongameli lokuthintela ukungena kwabaphambukeli kumazwe athile. INkundla, isebenzisa umgangatho ofanelekileyo, ixhasa ukuvalwa komsebenzi. Noko ke, yaphawula ukuba uMgaqo-siseko umisela “umgaqo ongundoqo wokukhusela okulinganayo, osebenza kubo bonke abantu.

Enye indawo evala iflashs kukuvalelwa kweminye imingxuma. ikhondo eliguquliweyo, elibambe olo phawu lwezaphuli-mthetho olukhankanyiweyo likhankanyiwe ngaphambili ukuvalelwa okungagqibekanga, kodwa kamva amatyala anjenge Jenings v. Uluvo lwe-Rodriguez[] [2088]) ugcino olusemthethweni, olubambe olo lunyanzelekileyo lwendwendwe oluthile alungqubani nenkqubo engundoqo yokufundwa kwe-Immigation neNational Act. Ulutho luka-Alto, ngenxa yobuninzi, luxhomekeke kumbhalo nenkqubo yembali, luphikisa ukuba ukuqonda kwasekuqaleni kwe-hasboxpus kwaye okungakhange kufuneki ukudibaniswe nokungagobezwa ngenxa ye-encti.

Iingenelo Zentlalo Nezentlalo Kawonke - wonke

Ukusetyenziswa kwamalungelo orhulumente, oonobumba, nawokuqala, kunye namalungelo angengawo akhoyo kuyabonakala kwiimpikiswano malunga nemiqathango yomgangatho wentlalo. Amaphondo amaninzi aye azama ukuthintela abaphambukeli abangagunyaziswanga ekufumaneni imvume esemthethweni entlanu, iilayisensi zomqhubi, okanye izindlu zikawonke-wonke. IiNkundla zisoloko zisebenzisa uvavanyo olusengqiqweni, kodwa amaziko angaphambili aphikisa ukuba igunya lamapolisa ngokwembali liquke igunya lokubeka iinkalo ezisekelwe kwimiqathango yolunye uhlanga, ngaphandle kokuba ukungqubana nomthetho karhulumente. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo sikwi- Arizona v. United States [2010] [20] sabetha phantsi iinxalenye ze-SB. 1070 kwimiqatha, kodwa iJajini yase-Scalialcial Scalia sikhuthaza ukuvanisa imigaqo yomthetho wokuqala.

Kutshanje, iNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi INdawo yoKhuseleko lwasekhaya lwe Homeland v. Regents zeYunivesithi yaseKhalifoniya (2020) yathi ulawulo lweTrump lungaphinda luhlolwe kodwa lungafikeleli kwiimfuno zomGaqo-siseko. Ityala libalaselisa uxinezeleko phakathi kogunyazo lolawulo oluphezulu ekungeneni kwemimibutho yabemi kunye neenkqubo ezifanelekileyo yabamfaneleyo yabamkeli be-DACA. Abaquluqulundlo lolawulo batyelele ukuxhasa igosamkelo, kodwa abanye bayavuma ukuba xa umphambukeli ekhona enikwa ubukho, ulwimi “lwenguMgaqo-siseko” luyasebenza.

Ukubonelela ngamalungelo abantu abangaSebenziyo

Nangona ingengobemi abasemthethweni bengenalo ilungelo lemithetho-siseko yorhulumente ukuvota, ezinye iimfuno zemithetho-siseko `njengeSan Francisco, iChicago, needolophu eziliqela eMaryland'. kwaye yandisa amalungelo okuvota kunyuselo lwasekuhlaleni kubantu abangengobemi abahlala ezindaweni ezingokwasemthethweni. Le mithetho icelw'eyilwa phantsi kwimiqathango karhulumente, kodwa uxanduva lwasemthethweni kukuba iintsingiselo zomGaqo-siseko zikwalela imithetho enjalo. Abanye baphikisa ukuba intsingiselo yoMgaqo-siseko iyakuyivala na i-omatikontina neSinyuso-15 sokuLandlwa kwemi i-Polisa i-Rokientiniten ngenxa yokuba ilungelo lokuvota lobumi. Abanye baphikisa ukuba ukuvota okuLawulwa kweSihlalo-mthetho kushiya kwiimeko kusini na kumazwe, kwaye amazwe angachaza “oomagunyathi begunyazi belizwe, njengoko befuna, befuna ukuba bangenzi amalungelo abenzile mvume. Ingxoxo ehlazininzi yabemi ihlala ithene.

Ukucelwa Kobulungisa Nomgangatho

Ukudibana kobuNqanam obuQala namalungelo angengawo amaqela kuphakamisa imibuzo enzulu malunga nobume bomGaqo-siseko. Ukuba intsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko ifuna ukuba intsingiselo yayo iqinisekiswe kwinkulungwane ye-18, ngoko ke uxwebhu lunokuyicombulula njani ngokufanelekileyo imiqaba yelizwe jikelele? Ngokuphikisanayo, ukuba ukhuseleko loMgaqo-siseko “abantu" lungowona mhlaba wonke, kutheni kufuneka ukuba abe ngummi?

Ukulungelelanisa Ukuthanda Izinto Zamandulo Nemilinganiselo Yanamhlanje

Izazi ngenkcazo zendalo zisoloko zivuma ukuba umGaqo-siseko awululo uxwebhu olugqibeleleyo, kodwa zihlala zisithi umbhalo wayo nentsingiselo yasekuqaleni inika isiseko esizinzileyo. Ukuguqulwa kwamalungelo abantu abangengomalungu akhoyo, baphikisa ngelithi, kufuneka kufike kwinkqubo yedemokhrasi yokupheliswa kwemithetho-siseko, hayi ukutolikwa kwezomthetho. Le mbono iye yakhokelela kwimeko yokuthintelwa: iinkundla kufuneka zixhase imigaqo emininzi karhulumente yabangengabo abangabo, logama nje zingayingqubanisi intsingiselo yantlandlolo yamalungiselelo.

Abahlalutyi bale ndlela, kuquka abanye abaxhasi abaphambili bendalo abanjengoNjingalwazi Randy Barnett, baphikisa ngelithi intsingiselo yantlandlolo kawonke-wonke yentsingiselo “iimfuno okanye ukugonywa kwe-145" ibanzi kuneNkundla ePhakamileyo ekwamkelekileyo, inokuba ikhusela inkululeko yezoqoqosho kunye namalungelo athile entlalontle kubo bonke abantu. Le ngxoxo yangaphakathi icebisa ukuba intanda-bulumko ayithethi ngesiphumo esinye kwiimeko ezininzi; kunoko, ifaka impikiswano kwimbali nakububungqina bemibhalo.

Ekugqibeleni, umbuzo wokuba umGaqo-siseko ufanele ukuchazwa ngokungqongqo ngokwentsingiselo yawo yantlandlolo okanye ulungelelaniswa nemigangatho yalo uhlala uphilile. Kubantu abangengobenzi, izibonda ziphezulu, njengoko ukufikelela kwabo kumalungelo asisiseko ("lonto, inkqubela-phambili, ukhuseleko olulinganayo, inkululeko kucalulo-------------------------------aluqondisekiyo. I-Britancyism ayinikezi mpendulo ezilula; ifuna ukuba sihlolisise ngenyameko oko kufunwa ziiFramers kunye nee-ratifiers, nendlela leyo eguqulelaa loo nto ithetha ukuba ingacacingela njani kwihlabathi.

Ingxoxo eqhubekayo phakathi kwabaphengululi bemvelaphi, abagwebi nabameli iqinisekisa ukuba lo mmandla womthetho uza kuhlala unamandla. Njengoko inkqubo yokufuduka kunye nokuqanjwa kweNkundla ePhakamileyo kuguquka, ukucaciswa kwamalungelo angengawo angeyonto kuza kuqhubeka kubumba izigqibo zengqalelo kangangamashumi eminyaka ezayo. Ukuqonda esi siseko kubalulekile nabani na ofuna ukuqhuba ulawulo olusemthethweni lobumi, lobulungu, nokhuseleko lwemithetho-siseko eUnited States.

[[UMTL:0] Icebo elipheleleyo: ukwenzela ushwankathelo olubanzi lwezigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ezibandakanya amalungelo angengabo abangabo, jonga kwi iSebe loMphathiswa kwimiqathango yokufuduka kunye nenkqubo efunekayo.