Ukwazisa: Ilitye Lenkululeko YaseMerika

UHlaliso Lokuqala LomGaqo-siseko waseUnited States luyintsika yedemokhrasi yaseMerika, echaza inkululeko esisiseko emihlanu: unqulo, ukuthetha, ukushicilela, indibano kunye nesicelo. I-Rattemin, njengenxalenye yeBhili yamaLungelo, yenzelwe ukukhusela isazela somntu ngamnye nentetho kurhulumente ekuqhatheni. Kodwa amazwi ayo ashwankathelwe ka-45 abangele iinkulungwane zengxoxo, inkcazo yeNkundla ePhakamileyo, ingummiselo weNkundla ephakamileyo, kunye neempikiswano eziqhubekayo ezibumba uhlanga i̱ umqondiso. Ukuqonda iSinyuko Sokuqala asifuni nje ukuqonda umbhalo wayo kodwa kwakhona uxabiso lwamandla embali akudala kunye nocelomngeni lwangoku oluvavanyazisa imiqathango yayo. Eli nqaku lihlola inkululeko ekwiNkunyaka-&817; ukumila, ukuma kwemizwa kwemibango nganye, kunye nokuxinzelela kweminye imibandela eMelika Yokuqala.

Imeko - ngqondweni Yembali: Ukusuka Kwienguqu Ukuya Kutsho Kukudilizwa

UHlaziyo Lokuqala lwavela kwimposiso yetyala lamathanga kunye neenjongo zokukhanyiselwa. Abalawuli abaninzi, abakhe bafumana intshutshiso yonqulo okanye ababona iBhunga i-Ù ukucinezelwa kwamazwi aphikisanayo, babezimisele ukuthintela urhulumente omtsha wesizwe ukuba angaphindi amoshwa. Ngexesha lamathanga, imithetho yokunyelisa, ukuvukela ityala, kunye nokusekwa kweecawa (ezifana neCawa yase-Ngilani kumathangala) zaziqhelekile. UmGaqo-siseko wesizwe uphawula ukuba ukunyanzela uBhibeko lwamalungelo eencwadini yayisisitshixo ukukhusela ukukhuselwa komGaqo-siseko ngokwawo, kunye nokhuseleko olufuna ukukhuselwa ngokwawodwa kwenkululeko.

Izazi-bulumko ezifana noJohn Locke kunye noJohn Stuart Mill zaphembelela amafrears ’ becinga ngamalungelo emvelo kunye nomgaqo wokwenza umonakalo. Isindululo soMgaqo-nkqubo wamalungelo emvelo (1776), esibhaliswe nguGeorge Mason, ikhuselwe ngokucacileyo yinkululeko yokushicilela nonqulo. UJames Madison, ekuqaleni engaqiniseki ngokomthetho wamalungelo angeyomfuneko, waxhasa iziphelo ezizakuba yiNgqolo-zileyo yoLungisa. Umbhalo wokugqibela (̴ iConrefet ayisayi kwenza mthetho mayelana nokusekwa konqulo, okanye ukunqanda ukusetyenziswa kwalo ngesisa; okanye ukuvalwa kwenkululeko yokuthetha, okanye yoomatshini; okanye ilungelo labantu lokuhlanganisana, kunye nokubongoza koRhulumente ukuhlanganisa izikhalazo ezibomvu ze-&8222; urhulumente onamandla.

Inkululeko Yonqulo: UNondyebo Oyidiliya

Ngokucacileyo inkululeko yonqulo yeyokuqala edweliswe, ebonakalisa inkxalabo enzulu ngonqulo olusekelwe kurhulumente. Intengiso iqulethe iinkuselo ezimbini ezahlukeneyo kodwa ezinxulumeneyo: ukumiselwa no-Claus no-Freast Speciece Claus. La magama asebenza kunye ukuqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente uhlala engathathi cala kunqulo lo gama evumela abantu ukuba baqhelisele ukholo lwabo ngaphandle kokuphazanyiswa.

Ukusekwa KukaClaus

Ukumiswa kuka-Claus kuyalwalela urhulumente ekumiseleni unqulo olusemthethweni okanye ekuthandeni ngokungafanelekanga olunye unqulo ngaphezu kolunye. Lo mgaqo ubukumgangatho wamatyala amaninzi eNkundleni Ephakamileyo. Engel v. Vitale [ [1962], iNkundla yagalela urhulumente ukusungula uluvo oluthathu loburhulumente: umthetho umele ube nenjongo yasekuhlaleni, umele ubambelele nokuba nomthandazo ongengowamaqela awuthobeli ulwayo umgaqo. Kamva, Lemon v. Kurtzman[19] [18] usekelo olunempembelelo: umele ube nomthetho obalulekileyo, umele ungabi namsebenzi wonqulo, kwaye umele ungalukhuthathise ulunyuse urhulumente. Ngexa uluvavaniso oluchuliweyo, lusoloko lunelwa.

Kutshanje, iNkundla iqhubekeke ukuya kwindlela engokwembali engakumbi, njengoko ibonwa ku Kennedy v. Bremeton School District [202], evumela umqeqeshi webhola ekhatywayo kawonke-wonke ukuba athandaze kwibala emva kwemidlalo. Uninzi lwathi umqeqeshi we-’ amabinzana onqulo lwangasese awamiselanga urhulumente. La matyala abonisa uxinezeleko oluqhubekayo phakathi kokuthintela unqulo lwepontswo kunye nokuzithethelela konqulo kubomi babantu bonke.

Ukuzilolonga Ngokukhululeka

I-Free Emplified Claus ikhusela abantu ngabanye ̱ inelungelo lokubambelela nokuqhelisa iinkolelo zabo zonqulo ngaphandle kokunyanzelwa ngurhulumente. Iimeko zangaphambili, ezifana Reynolds v. United States [1879]], eyahlukileyo phakathi kwenkolelo (epheleleyo) kunye nehambo (ephantsi kwemithetho yobundidi). Uyilo lwangoku lwayilwa [[FLT:]] SSber v. Verner [1963], efuna urhulumente abonise umdla onyanzelekileyo phambi komsebenzi wonqulo onzima. Noko ke, [[FLT] udityaniso oluthelwe , olunomthetho oluqhelekileyo, olunokusebenzisa ulawulo olungekho ngqiqweni nolunokusetyenziswa, njengoko kufanelekile, ngokokungasetyenziswa lukhulu, ngenxa yokholo oluthe .

Congress waphendula ngoMthetho weReligious Freedom Reformation Act (RFRA) ka 1993, oye wabuyisela uvavanyo lwenzala olunyanzelisayo kwimithetho karhulumente. I-RFRA iye yacelwa kwiimeko ezifana Burwell v. Hobby Lobby (Umnyaka, apho iinkampani ezinamava asondeleyo zinokungavumi ukunikela intethezo yokuthintela ukuthintela inzala kwimiqathango yonqulo. Iintlobo zeRFRA zikarhulumente zikwakhe kwavusa impikiswano, ingakumbi xa zingquzulana nemigaqo echasene ne-discriv yeLGBTQ+ abantu ngabanye. Ukuqonda imigaqo yenkululeko yenkululeko kufuna ukuqhuba ingeniso yonqulo ngokuchasene nezinye izilangazelelo.

Inkululeko Yokuthetha: Iinkuselo Nemida

Inkululeko yokuthetha mhlawumbi yeyona isoloko ibekwe kwilungelo lokuhlaziywa koMphetho wokuqala. Ikhusela kungekuphela nje amagama athethwayo kodwa kwanenkcazelo ebhaliweyo, izenzo zomfuziselo (ezifana nokutshisa iflegi), kwanentetho yezorhwebo. INkundla Ephakamileyo ibisoloko ikholelwa ukuba urhulumente akanakukwazi ukubeka umda intetho esekelwe kwizinto ezikuyo okanye kwiimbono zayo, nangona ezinye iindidi zentetho zifumana ukhuseleko oluncinane okanye zingenako konke konke konke konke.

Ukukhusela Iindidi Zentetho

Umgangatho ophezulu wokhuseleko usebenza kwintetho yezobupolitika. kwiNew York Times Co. v. Sullivan [1964], iNkundla yaseka owona mgangatho wobubi wokukhusela ugxeko lwamagosa kawonke-wonke kwisuti. Intetho efuziselayo yabalaselelwa ngokubalulekileyo kwi TEXAS v. Johnson [1999], apho ukutshisa iflegi yaseMelika kwakugqalwa njengendlela ekhuselwe ngayo. Intetho ye-Xhosa (edission) ifumana uhlolo oluphakathi phantsi [[[FLT: 4.] ConfGPDGPGeneral Gamp; KGLP. V. Inkonzo kawonke yenkonzo ye-C.[FLD.5]

INkundla ikwasele ukhuseleko lwentetho ukulungiselela igalelo kwi Citizens United . FEC (2010), ilawula ukuba inkcitho yezopolitiko ezizimeleyo zemibutho nemibutho ikhuselwe. Esi sigqibo sihlala siphikisana kakhulu, sibalaselisa uxinezeleko phakathi kwentetho ekhululekileyo kunye nenkxalabo yemali kwezobupolitika.

Imida Kwinkululeko Yokuthetha

  • [[UMTLL:0] Intetho ebhekiswa ekukhuthazeni isenzo esikufuphi solwaphulo-mthetho kwaye mhlawumbi ukuvelisa isenzo esinjalo akukhuselwanga ( Brandenburg v. Ohio, 1969).
  • Izinto ezinomtsalane kwintsabelo ephezulu, ezibonisa ihambo yesondo ngendlela engaqhelekanga, ngokungekho mdla, ngobugcisa, ngezobupolitika, okanye ngexabiso lenzululwazi ziyasuswa (Miller v. California, 1973]).
  • [[UMTL:0] Ukukhupha ityala:[ iintetho zobuxoki zento ezonzakalisa umntu i̱ udumo lungakhokelela kwityala likarhulumente, nangona amanani kawonke-wonke kufuneka angqine ulunya lokwenene.
  • Amagama alwayo: ukuthukwa kusenokuxhokonxa ugonyamelo alukhuselekanga, nangona iNkundla iye yaluxina oludidi ixesha.
  • [[UMTL:0] Izisongelo zenyaniso: iingxelo ezithi umntu osengqiqweni angazichaza njengenkcazelo enzulu yenjongo yokwenzakala azikhuselekanga.

Ezi zimkhethe zibonisa ukuba inkululeko yokuthetha ayiphelelanga, kodwa iNkundla ibimathidala ukuzandisa. Umthwalo uhlala kurhulumente ukuze uthethelele nawuphi na uthintelo, kwaye ukuhlalutyiswa kwembono kusoloko kupheliswa.

Inkululeko Yeencwadi Zokushicilela: Inkululeko Yolawulo - melo

Umatshini wokushicilela okhululekileyo ubalulekile ekugcineni urhulumente ebeke ityala kwaye wazise uluntu ngokubanzi. Uhlaziyo Lokuqala lukhusela umatshini wokushicilela kumthetho obekwe phambi konyaka. Urhulumente akanakuvala ukupapashwa kwencwadi kwangaphambili ngaphandle kweemeko ezingaqhelekanga. Umzekelo wento ephawulayo iNew York Times Co. v. United States (1971], owaziwa ngokuba ngumzekelo wePentagon Papers, waqinisekisa lo mgaqo xa iNkundla ePhakamileyo ivumela ukupapashwa kwamaxwebhu ahlulayo malunga nemfazwe yaseVietnam, ilawula ukuba urhulumente akadibananga nomthwalo onzima wokungqina isisongelo esithe ngqo kukhuseleko lwesizwe.

Inkululeko idibanisa ilungelo lokuqokelela iindaba, nangona eli lungelo lingenasiphelo. Abacholacholi beendaba abanalo ilungelo elipheleleyo lokungavumi ukunikela ubungqina phambi kwemigwebo emikhulu, nangona amazwe amaninzi enemithetho ekhusela ikhusela imithombo eyimfihlo. I-intanethi intsonkothile ishicilela inkululeko: ii-blogger, abasebenzisi bezixhobo zezentlalo-mbini, kunye neentatheli ezizimeleyo zidla ngokuthetha ngokhuseleko olufanayo, yaye iinkundla ngokuqhelekileyo ziye zandisa ukhuseleko oluphezulu kubo bonke ababandakanye nokusasaza ulwazi, hayi nje ngokwesithethe samajelo eendaba. Noko ke, [[FLT: 0] iKomiti yeNtshuphelo yenkululeko yeProfs[FLT], kunye neentatheliti ezizimeleyo, iindaba zisoloko zifumana imingeni ekhulayo, ii-othopoemana, ii-operalphea, kunye nokuhlasela kootho.

Iingxoxo zale mihla ngenkululeko yokushicilela ziquka ulungelelwano phakathi kokhuseleko lwesizwe nokubonakala (umthetho olawula ukurhoxiswa kwetyala ophantsi koMthetho weEspionage), indima yabacholacholi-ndaba ekugqumeni izikhalazo, kunye nempembelelo yamaphulo okungagunyazi okuvela kwamanye amazwe. INkundla ePhakamileyo isamele ichaze ngokupheleleyo indlela IsiHlaziyo sokuqala esisebenza ngayo kwiiplatfomu zezemali zeenkampani zabucala, kodwa umgaqo osisiseko uhleliyo: umatshini kufuneka ukhululeke ukuhlolisisa igunya ngaphandle kokuphazamisa kukarhulumente.

Ilungile Ukuhlanganisa Nokucela: Ilizwi Eliqokelelayo

Ilungelo labantu lokuhlanganisana ngoxolo nokucela urhulumente ukuba alungise izikhalazo kuye kwaba ngamandla aqhubela phambili kutshintsho lwentlalo eMelika. La malungelo asoloko esetyenziswa kunye. / abantu bayahlanganisana ukuze bavukele, bahambe, okanye baququzelele, baze banikeze izibongozo okanye iimfuno kubameli babo. INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yaqonda ukuba indibano iyinxalenye efunekayo yokuthabatha inxaxheba kwidemokhrasi. Denge v. Oregon[FLD:1] [1937], iNkundla yagqiba ukuba kwanentlanganiso elungiselelwe yiSigqeba samaKomanisi yayikhuselwe ukuba intlanganiso yakuba ikhuselekile kwaxa kwakusekho uxolo.

Ukucela urhulumente kungenza iintlobo ezininzi: ukusayina isicelo, ukubhalela amagosa anyuliweyo, ukuvala amatyala, ukuphembelela okanye ukwenza imisebenzi efuziselayo. Ilungelo lokucela ukukhusela ukukhutshwa kwemisebenzi, ukhuthuzo lwamalungelo abantu, kunye nokuqhankqalaza kokusingqongileyo. Ngexesha leNtlanganiso yamaLungelo e-NaACP yasebenzisa zombini indibano kunye nesibongozo ukuvavanya ukupheka ukupheliswa, kunye neNkukhusela amalungu ayo ekuchaseni kulawulo [FLT: 0].NAACP v. Alabama (1988).

Imingeni yanamhlanje iquka imiqathango enxulumene nokuqhankqalaza, ukusetyenziswa kwamandla nxamnye nabaqhubi abasebenzisa iidemon, kunye nendima ekhulayo yezibongozo ze-intanethi. Iindawo zonxibelelwano zezonxibelelwano zezentlalo-ntle iye yaba ziziindawo ezisisixeko ezisisigxina zedolophu, kodwa ngenxa yokuba zizinto ezizimeleyo, uHlaziyo Lokuqala aluyilawuli ngqo imigaqo yokulungelelanisa izinto. Iinkundla zisangqubana nokuba ngaba ukusetyenziswa kukarhulumente kusini na xa kusenziwa iqonga okanye kupheliswa amazwi athile.

Imibandela Yangoku: UMthetho Wokuqala Wokwenziwa Komhlaba Ngenkulungwane Ye - 21

UMthetho wokuqala ohlaziyiweyo usoloko uluxwebhu oluphilayo, oluvavanywa bubugcisa obutsha kunye nezithethe ezigqwethekileyo zoluntu. Imimandla emithathu ephambili ilawula impikiswano zangoku: iintloni zentetho nemigaqo yemfundo, uhlalutyo kwi-intanethi kunye neCandelo 230, kunye nongquzulwano phakathi kokuthetha ngokukhululekileyo nokhuseleko lwesizwe.

Yithiye Intetho Nentetho Enzima

UMthetho Wokuqala ukhusela eyona ntetho intiyo okanye ehlasimlis ’ umzimba, ngaphandle kokuba ibekwe kudidi olungenakukhuseleka olufana nokuvuselela okanye izisongelo zokwenyaniso. Lo mgaqo uye wagcinwa ngokungaguquki: iNkundla yabetha iSt. Paul yavala ukuvutha komnqamlezo (R.A.V. v.. sisixeko sikaPaul, 1992) kwaye yakhusela i-Westbo Baptist ̱ ihlasela imikhosi ( der. Phelp, 2011). Iiyunivesithi ezininzi ziye zazama ukwenza imigaqo yokuthetha into ethethwayo, kodwa iinkundla zidla ngokubabetha njenge-b okanye iimbono ezikhuselweyo. Imithetho ekhuselwe phakathi kwabafundi kunye nemigaqo-mthetho ekhuselweyo.

Ulungelelwaniso lweNtetho neNkcubeko

Iinkampani zezentlalo zixhobo zekhompyutha ezifana ne-Facebook, Tutter (ngoku X), kunye no-YouTube olinganiselweyo okuqulathwe ngokusekelwe kwimibandela yazo yenkonzo. Ngenxa yokuba ziinqanaba zabucala, uHlaliso Lokuqala alubaleli ekususeni iipawudi okanye ekuvaleni abasebenzisi. Noko ke, abagxeki baphikisa ukuba la maqonga aba sikwere sangoku kwaye kufuneka baphathwe ngokunjalo kukhuseleko olufanayo. Icandelo 230 loNxulumaniso lweNxulumaniso lwenzelelaniso lwenzeka olunika ukhuseleko oluqulathwe ngumsebenzisi ofakiweyo kunye nokulungisa izinto ngokholo, kodwa i-LLLSPP [201], i-PG.[24] iNKLD, i-GOUPG. i-G.PG. i-G.PUM.PG.

Ukhuseleko lwesizwe luchasene. Intetho yamahala

Emva kohlaselo olungu-9/11, urhulumente waphakamisa iinkqubo zophando kunye nabachopheli bemikhalaza phantsi koMthetho weEspionage. Ityala elifana United States v. Ukuvavanya (2013]) kunye nokutshutshiswa kukaEdward Snowden kwaphakamisa imibuzo yokuba ngaba uMphengululo wokuqala ukhusela ulwazi oluvunyiweyo kunomdla woluntu. Inkundla ePhakamileyo inike umva ophangaleleyo kumphathi-ntloko kwimicimbi yokhuseleko yesizwe, kodwa abagxeki baphikisa ukuba ukusetyenziswa koomatshini kunye nokungavumelani okungqongqo. Umlinganiselo phakathi kokukhusela iimfihlelo nokugcina ulwazi olunolwazi uhlala ungonakalanga.

Isiphelo: Ukukhusela IsiHlomelo Sokuqala Sezizukulwana Zexesha Elizayo

UHlaliso Lokuqala asilogama elidala kodwa ngumthetho onamandla esimele siwuchaze size siwukhusele. Ukhuseleko lwawo lonqulo, ukuthetha, ushicilelo, indibano kunye nesicelo ziziseko apho onke amalungelo akhoyo. Njengokuba iMelika ejongene nokuthamba okunzulu, ukuphazamiseka kobugcisa, kunye neengxaki zomhlaba, imigaqo yeSimemezelo sokuqala ilungiselela ukucombulula iimpikiswano kunokunyanzela. Abafundi, abafundi, kunye nabemi kufuneka baqhubeke befunda imbali yayo, baqonde izicelo zayo zamaxesha akhoyo, kwaye baxhase ukukhuselwa kwayo ngamandla. Inkululeko ekhuselwayo ngaloo mazwi angama-45 yenza iUnited States ibe nguvavanyo olukhethekileyo kwi-gonvations.