Isiseko Segunya Elisemthethweni

Inkqubo yokuchaza umgaqo-siseko isisiseko kwindlela eyakhiwe ngayo, isetyenziswa ngayo, kwaye itshintshwa ngayo nayiphi na inkqubo yomgaqo-siseko. Umgaqo-siseko ngumthetho ophakamileyo welizwe, umisela isakhiwo sikarhulumente, amagunya alawulayo, nokukhusela amalungelo asisiseko. Ukutolikwa komGaqo-siseko yindlela ekwenziwa ngayo iinkundla, iimfonomfono-siseko, amagosa abaphathi-mthetho, kunye nabaphengululi abasemthethweni bagqiba intsingiselo yamalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko kwaye bawusebenzise kwiimeko ezithile. Ngaphandle kokuqondana ngendlela yokuchaza umgaqo-siseko, yonke isiseko siyaguquguquka kwaye singaqiniseki. Eli nqaku linika ushwankathelo olucacileyo ngendlela enokwenziwa ngayo, indlela yokuchaza imithetho yemithetho, nendlela yomgaqo-siseko, nendlela yoogqweqelela nomgaqo-siseko onokutshintshwa ngayo ngexesha elithile.

Enyanzelweni yayo, ukutolikwa komgaqo-siseko, kusebenza njengebhulorho phakathi kwemigaqo engekho ngqiqweni ebhalwe kumashumi eminyaka okanye iinkulungwane adluleyo kunye nezibakala zezolawulo zale mihla. Ukuba ijaji igqiba imbambano yokuthetha ngokukhululekileyo, indlu yowiso-mthetho imisela umthetho omtsha kwimicimbi yobucala, okanye umbutho olawulayo umisela umthetho, umgaqo-siseko unika umgaqo opheleleyo. Ngoko ke ukuqonda iindlela zokutolika ziyimfuneko kungekuphela kumagqwetha nakubenzi bomthetho kodwa nakumntu ngamnye onqwenela ukuqonda indlela amalungelo abo kunye negunya likarhulumente elilungelelaniswe ngayo.

Inkqubo yoMthetho kwinkqubo yomgaqo-siseko

Ukusuka Kwibhili Ukuya Kumthetho: Indlela Esezantsi

Imithetho yenziwa ngendlela yokumiselwa kwemithetho eyahlukileyo kwiinkqubo zomthetho ezahlukeneyo kodwa ilandela umlinganiselo ofanayo. Imithetho iveliswa lilungu lequmrhu lemithetho (‘i-commenterson, i-senate, okanye isalathisi sepalamente. Isivumelwano ngoko sihamba ngohlolo lwekomiti, apho iingcali zesihloko-sichotho zihlola amalungiselelo aso, iindlebe, ze zive, ze zicebisa ukulungiswa kwemithetho. Emva kokumiswa kwekomiti, imvume yemithetho iqhutyekwa phantsi kwegumbi lemithetho. Kwimimiselo yeBhameral, njengeKhomishini yeBritane okanye iPalamente yaseBritani, omabini amagumbi kufuneka adlulise iinguqulelo ezifanayo zemithetho. Ngaxa lithile, izibhengezo zinikezelwa kumphathi-ofisi (umlungiseli, umfundisi-nkulu, okanye umphathi-ofisi) ukuze ivune. I-gradiodgne, i-gnomeadtoto, okanye umthetho omiswe ngaphandle kosayinwa yimithetho. Ukuba i-provispoto, i-optive.

Le ndlela isesikweni iqinisekisa ukuba imithetho ecetyiweyo ifumana uhlolo olucokisekileyo phambi kokumiswa. Noko ke, inkqubo ayipheli xa umthetho utyikitywa. Umthetho ngamnye kufuneka uvisisane namalungiselelo nemigaqo yomgaqo-siseko. Ukuba umthetho uphula amalungelo asisiseko okanye ugqithise amagunya anikwe urhulumente, unokubalelwa enkundleni kwaye ubethelelwe phantsi. Olu hlolo lomgaqo-siseko luyisiseko sohlalutyo, oluxutyushwe kamva kweli nqaku.

Imigaqo-nkqubo yoMgaqo-siseko engoMthetho

Imida yezomthetho esezantsi iquka imida encinci yokwenza umthetho. Imida engaphantsi kwemithetho ethintelwayo iquka ukwaliwa kwemithetho yokuba inkululeko yokuthetha, ukuseka unqulo, ukukhanyela ukhuseleko olulinganayo, okanye ukumisela isohlwayo esinenkohlakalo nesingaqhelekanga. Imida yemithetho ichaza indlela emele ibekwe ngayo (ngokomzekelo, kufuna i-projectrum, ukuvota okubhaliweyo, okanye ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho ethile ephezulu njengokwanda okanye ukukhuselwa kwerhafuzeko. Ngoko ke abaLawuli-mthetho kufuneka basoloko beqwalasela imidaba yemithetho xa belungisa okanye bephikisana. Ukungaphumeleli ukwenza njalo kunokwenzeka kumthetho owenziwe waphelelwa amandla, ukudlala kwezopolitiko nokuphazamisa ukufezeka komthetho.

Kwinkqubo zorhulumente, ukucaciswa komgaqo-siseko kukwamisela ukwahlulwa kwegunya phakathi kwesizwe norhulumente okanye oorhulumente bamaphondo. Umzekelo, uMgaqo-siseko we-U.S. uClaus utolikwa ngokumanyumnyezi ngezantsi (ngomaxesha athile) ukunika iKhomishini amandla abanzi okulawula umsebenzi wezoqoqosho, ngoxa uMmiselo weSihlaziyo weshumi ugcina onke amanye amagunya kumarhulumente. Ezi mpikiswano zokucacisa umthetho zingundoqo kwindlela owenziwa ngayo nokucetyiswa ngayo.

Iingcamango zengcaciso yomgaqo-siseko

Abagwebi namagosa bafanele bayiqonde njani intsingiselo yomgaqo-siseko? Lo mbuzo uye wavelisa iingcamango eziliqela ezikhuphisanayo, nganye inendlela yayo yokwenza noluvo lokwenza umthetho. Akukho ndlela inye eyamkelekileyo ehlabathini lonke, kwaye abagwebi abaninzi basebenzisa umxube weendlela ezixhomekeke kwityala.

Ukuqala Nokubhala

UbuGawulayo bumi ukuba amalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko kufuneka atolikwe ngokwentsingiselo yawo yantlandlolo ngexesha awagunyaziswa ngalo. Abaququzeli baphikisa ngokuthi le ndlela inyanzelisa imigaqo-mthetho yezomthetho kwaye ibhekiselele kwinkqubo yedemokhrasi apho umgaqo-siseko wamiselwa khona. i-listrialism[ ingcamango enxulumeneyo, igxininisa kumbhalo ocacileyo woxwebhu, ixhomekeke kwisichazi-magama esinegama kunye nokusetyenziswa kwalo. I-Statusism ayithethi ukuba umgaqo-siseko umiswe ngayo kwixesha elidlulileyo; abaninzi abaqalayo bamkela ukuba ukusetyenziswa kwentsingiselo yokuqala inokuguquka, ixesha elide njengoko utshintsho luzinziswayo oluzinzileyo. I-Promotence Antonin Sclanety Sclanety

Umgaqo-siseko ophilayo

Ngokwahlukileyo, umgaqo-siseko ophilayo uphikisa ngokuthi umgaqo-siseko uxwebhu olunamandla olunentsingiselo eguqukayo ngamaxabiso neemeko zoluntu. Abaxhasi bakhomba kwizigqibo zephawu eliphawulayo njenge Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo[ [1954], ephelisa i-paration ye-scrinitys ezikolweni, iphikisa ukuba ukuqonda kokuqala koKhuselo lwe-Clausleeaste akunakuvelisa loo mphumo. Ngaphantsi kwalembono, abagwebi bachaza izivakalisi ezibanzi “inkqubo ezingaphambili” okanye“ ingqeqesho engaqhelekanga" kwimigangatho yangoku. Abachasayo ngokomgaqo-mthetho-siseko (1954), evumela ukuba ivumela iinjongo zabo phantsi kolwazi oluqhelekileyo.

Ukurhweba Nenkcazelo Yesakhiwo

[[NTLL:0] IPurpositis ifuna ukunikezela isiphumo kwiinjongo ezibanzi eziphantsi komphako womgaqo-siseko ongaphantsi kocaciswayo kunokuba kusetyenziswe amagama awo ngokoqobo. Umzekelo, injongo yeFree Speech Claus ingaba kukudala ucalucalulo lwedemokhrasi, ekhokela abagwebi ukukhusela ezinye iintlobo zentetho (iiimeko zezobupolitika) ngaphezulu kunamanye (imeko okanye amanyala). utoliko lwendlela yomgaqo-siseko [ lujonge ukwenziwa kwemithetho ye-demokhrasi, ukwahlukana kwamandla, ulawulo kunye nolwahlulo lwamandla, ukujonga kunye nolwahlulo lwemithetho kwezo zakhiwo. Ingxoxo isenokugqiba kwelokuba uMongameli ulawulo lwangaphandle ngenxa yemithetho yemithetho enikezela phakathi kwamasebe, kwane amanqaku ahlukeneyo.

Isicelo Esisebenzisekayo: Indlela Iinkundla Ezikhetha Ngayo

Ngokwendlela esetyenziswayo, inkoliso yabagwebi isebenzisa umxube wezi ngcamango, maxa wambi imvelaphi, maxa wambi, imizekelo, kwaye maxa wambi iziphumo. Ukukhetha indlela yokutolika kunokusiguqula ngokusisiseko isiphumo setyala. Umbuzo wokuba ngaba iSesibini sokuHlaziya iMpanziso ukhusela umntu ukuba abe nezixhobo zokudubula wancinwa ixesha elide phakathi kwamalungu oqobo (afumana ilungelo elinjalo) kunye nabaxhasi bemithetho-siseko (ababethe bagxininisa ulwimi lwe-athoridi). Isigqibo seNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo ku- i-Difiling of Columbia v. Hellar[FLT:] [2001] [2008])]) ubukhulu becala yamkele indlela yokuqala yokuqhuba i-Promotence, iphawula utshintsho olubalulekileyo kumthetho wemipumpu.

Indima Yempinda Yogwebo

Uhlolo olubalulekileyo lungamandla eenkundla ukuvakalisa imithetho okanye izenzo zolawulo oluphezulu ezingekho semthethweni. Okokuqala lumiselwe eUnited States Marbury v. Madison [1803], eli gunya ngoku liyintsebenziswano yezomGaqo-siseko. IJajithe iqinisekisa ukuba yonke inyathelo likarhulumente lihambelana nomgaqo-siseko, kodwa kwakhona liphakamisa imibuzo ngendima efanelekileyo yabagwebi abanganyulwanga kwidemokhrasi.

Amatyala Ophawu Lwasezweni Nempembelelo Yawo

Izigqibo eziliqela eziphawulekayo zibonisa imiphumo enzulu yokutolikwa komgaqo - siseko:

  • [FLT] [FOLT] Marbury v. Madison [1803] – ukuseka umgaqo wokuhlola ityala, ukuvakalisa ukuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo inegunya lokubetha izenzo zeBhunga elichasene nomgaqo-siseko.
  • [FLT][FULT]n v. Ibhodi yemfundo[[FLT] [1954]) – Iphathwe ukuba ucalulo lobuhlanga kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke lwaphula uKhuselo olulinganayo luka Clause, lubhukuqa i-“de lulingana” imfundiso kunye nokungalinganiyo kombutho wamalungelo abantu.
  • [[NTL:0][FLT]ROE v. I-[[FLT][3] [773]) – fumana ilungelo lomgaqo-siseko lokuqhomfa phantsi kwe-Century Clause, isigqibo esabangela amashumi eminyaka engxoxo yezopolitiko nengcaciso.
  • [[NTL:0]bergefell v. Hodges (2015) – umthetho omnye womtshato wobunyani ungundoqo okhuselwe kakuhle ngumGaqo-siseko, usebenzisa zombini inkqubo efanelekileyo kunye nemigaqo elinganayo yokhuseleko.
  • Dobbs v. Jackson Amabhinqa akwintlangano yempilo[FLT]] [202] – ngaphaya kokujika Roe[ kunye ne-'FLT'] Parents v. Casey[, ibuyisela umbuzo wokuqhomfa kumanqaku. Esi sigqibo sabalase ulwelo lomgaqo-siseko kunye namandla okumisela imicimbi.

La matyala abonisa ukuba utoliko lwezomthetho alumi ngaxesha linye; luguquka njengoko ukwenziwa kweenkundla kutshintsha kwaye lutshintsha umgangatho wezobuzwe. Isigqibo ngasinye sivelisa imigaqo emitsha esemthethweni abaphathi-mthetho abamele bayiqwalasele xa besenza imithetho.

Umlinganiselo Nemida Yamandla Okugweba

Uhlolo lwezomthetho alunasiphelo. Iinkundla zisoloko zinamathele kumgaqo we stare decisis, ethetha ngokulandela imizekelo kwaye ikhuthaza uzinzo. Noko ke, iNkundla ePhakamileyo isoloko ilawula imizekelo yayo xa ifunyanwa iphosakele okanye ingasasebenzi. Eminye imida iquka iimfundiso ezisesikweni (ukuma, ukubola, ukukhulela) ezithintela iinkundla ukuba zingakhuphiseli iimbono okanye zigqibe iimpikiswano. Ukongeza, amasebe ezobupolitika angabhenela emva kwizigwebo ngokuquza umgaqo-siseko, ukudlulisa umthetho omtsha ohamba nenkundla elawulayo, okanye ekwanyanisweni, kwiimeko ezigqithisileyo.

Ubuchule bokutshintsha umGaqo-siseko

Utshintsho lomgaqo-siseko lunokwenzeka ngemijelo emibini ephambili: ulungiso olusemthethweni noqhelaniso olungacwangciswanga ngokutolikwa nokuqheliswa.

Iinkqubo Zokuhlaziywa

Umgaqo-siseko omninzi uquka inkqubo yokulungisa esemthethweni efuna imvume ephezulu neqhelekileyo. Umzekelo, iGatya V loMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S. lifuna ivoti yesithathu kwindlu neNdlu yeNdlu kunye nolwakhiwo ngesithathu sezindlu zowiso-mthetho. Lo mqobo uphezulu uqinisekisa ukuba ukupheliswa kwemida ebonakalisa ukuvumelana okubanzi kwaye akuthatyathwa lula. Kwimbali ye-U.S. imbali, i-i-antentelligements ezingama-72 kuphela zivunyiwe, kunye nezilishumi zokuqala (iBhili lamaLungelo) zoxwebhu lokuqala. Amanye amazwe anemida eyohlukeneyo; iIndiya ifuna uninzi olubini kwindlu nganye yePalamente edibanisa nesiqingatha se-ratemplamente.

Izindululo eziye zasetyenziswa ukwandisa amalungelo abantu (ii-13, i-14, ye-15, ye-19th Amendments), ukuguqula urhulumente (iindawo ezilawula ukuLawulwa kweMithetho yomongameli), kunye nokulawula izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo (yesi-1, iSindululo sama-26). Ngenxa yokuba le nkqubo inzima, iinguqulelo zomgaqo-siseko eUnited States ngokuya ixhomekeke ekucacisweni kwakhona kwezomthetho kunokuba kupheliswe.

Utshintsho Oluthulelwe Ngengcaciso Yezantlukwano

Ngokwendlela esetyenziswayo, intsingiselo yamalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko ingatshintsha ngokuphawulekayo ngaphandle kokutshintsha umbhalo. Umzekelo, iCommerce Claus yatolikwa ngokufutshane ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yama-20, yandule ukunwenwa ngexesha leNew Development ukuvumela ulawulo olubanzi, kwaye kamva iqiniswe kwakhona kwiimeko ezifana United States . Lopez [19595]. Ngokufanayo, ingcamango ye- “creel nesohlwayo esingaqhelekanga” kwiSinyuso se-8h Amendment iye yavela ukunqanda izenzo eziqwalaselwe ngokusemthethweni, njengokuphunyezwa kwamancinane kunye nokukhubazeka kwenzululwazi.

Oku kukwazi ukungacwangciswanga kokutshintsha kunamandla nokuchanabeka. Kuvumela umgaqo-siseko ukuba uqhelane nobugcisa obutsha kunye nophuhliso lwentlalo ngaphandle kwenkqubo enzima yokulungisa. Kodwa kwakhona kuthetha ukuba ukumiselwa komthetho omnye kungaguqula intsingiselo yamalungelo asisiseko, nto leyo ekhokelela kumadabi ezobupolitika kwiimeko zenkundla.

Indima yegunya nenkcazelo yoMthetho

Iinkundla asingowokuphela abatoliki bomgaqo-siseko. Isebe elilawulayo liwachaza rhoqo amalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko xa ligqiba enoba kuza kutyikitywa amatyala, kukhutshwa imiyalelo yabalawuli, okanye kusenziwa inyathelo lomkhosi. Umzekelo, oomongameli baye bavelisa iingcamango zolawulo oluphezulu oluphezulu [[[FLT: 0]] ukuthethelela ulawulo olubanzi lolawulo kunye nokususwa kwabalawuli abangaphantsi komthetho. IBhunga likwatolika umgaqo-siseko xa ligqiba umgangatho wamandla alo phantsi koMfaneleko kunye nemidalo efanelekileyo kaClausleaste okanye imida yegunya lalo. Ezi “inkcazelo ezingolwazi ezingokwahlukileyo” zinokungqubana ngquthelana nokugweba okuthiweyo okuye kugqitywe ngokruthotho lwezo lwezopolitiko okanye ukuchana.

Iingxaki Zangexesha Elidlulileyo Ekutolikeni UmGaqo-siseko

Ukucaciswa NeeNkundla

Kulawulo-mthetho oluninzi, ukutolikwa komGaqo-siseko kuye kwagqalwa ngokungqongqo. Iinkqubo zejaji ziyaphikiswa kakhulu kuba ingcamango exhaphakileyo yokutolika inokuba neziphumo kwimibandela eshushu enjenge-judiary button, amalungelo emipu, inkxaso-mali, namandla aphezulu. Le migaqo yezopolitiko iphakamisa inkxalabo ngokusemthethweni kohlalutyo olusemthethweni: ukuba abagwebi bagqalwa njengabagwebi abagwebi kunokuba bathathi-nxaxheba kwimicimbi yezopolitiko, ukukholosa abantu ngokubanzi. Abanye abaphengululi baxhasa iindlela ezicacileyo, njengenkqulukwano, ukunyanzela igunya lomthetho. Abanye baphikisa ukuba ukucacisa ukhetho kunokukunceda abantu baqonde ukuba ukugweba akuthethi nje ukuba abathathi cala kwiipolitiko.

Ubuxhakaxhaka kunye neMida emitsha

Inkqubela-phambili kwezobugcisa iphakamisa imibuzo emitsha efuna ukutolikwa ngomgaqo-siseko. UMmiselo wesi-5 usebenza njani ekujoliseni ngemivo yamanani? Luluphi ukhuseleko olufumaneka kuMphetho wokuqala weMimiselo-yomthetho nakumaqonga asekuhlaleni? Ngaba amalungelo karhulumente phantsi kweSigqibo seSihlazo seshumi elinambini ukwandisa ulawulo lobuchule obungeyo? IiNkundla zisoloko zixhomekeke kwimiboniso yakudala, kodwa isantya sotshintsho lwezobugcisa sifuna ubuchule bokwenza utshintsho kwiindlela zolwazi. Umzekelo, iNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi-mente yezoshishino yeze-the. Riley v. California [2014] (ikholelwa ukuba ukuphendla iseli yendlela yokubanjwa sithetha ngekhompyutha kufuneka isiqinisekiso, ukusetyenziswa kwefowuni kusetyenziswa “omatshini bokuphatha ii-data zobuqu.”

Impembelelo yomhlaba wonke Nenkcazelo Enxulumeneyo

Iinkundla zomGaqo-siseko ziphawula ngokwandayo umthetho wamanye amazwe kunye nowamazwe xa zichaza umgaqo-siseko wazo. Lo mkhwa, maxa wambi obizwa ngokuba utoliko olunomgaqo-siseko olunobuchule [, uphikisane. Abaxhasi baphikisa ukuba imigaqo yamalungelo abantu jikelele kwaye ukukhangela ezinye iidemokhrasi kunganika ingqiqo exabisekileyo. Abachasi baphikisa ukuba umthetho wasemzini awunagunyaziso lwedemokhrasi kwinkqubo yesiseko sobugrabhastile kwaye unakho ukunyulwa ngokukhethelwa kokuxhasa iziphumo ezimiselwe kwangaphambili. Inkundla ephakamileyo yezomthetho-orhulumente i-oqobo yahlula ityala, ngezihlandlo ezithile ichaza izenzo zamanye amazwe anjenge RG.[FFFF][200]

Isiphelo

Ukutolikwa komgaqo-siseko asiyonkqubo yemfundo enzima; yi-injini eqhuba indlela ekwenziwa ngayo imithetho, esetyenziswa ngayo, kunye neguqulwa ngayo ngokuhamba kwexesha. Ukusukela kwisicelo sokuqala semithetho ukuya kucelomngeni lwayo olunokwenzeka enkundleni, imigaqo yomgaqo-siseko isoloko isebenza. Ukuqonda iingcamango ezahlukeneyo zokutolikwa kwenkcazelo ngezantsi/ukusetyenziswa komgaqo-siseko, ukuphila komgaqo-siseko, ukulawulwa kwe-purpositionism, kunye nabanye .[1] Ukuquququzelela abemi kunye nabenzi bomthetho bezixhobo zokuvavanya izigqibo zomthetho kunye nezenzo zowiso-mthetho ngokungqongqo. Ubuchule bokupheliswa kwemithetho busoloko buqinisekisa ukuba umgaqo-siseko uyaqhubeka ufanelekile, kodwa kwakhona ukudala ukungavisisani phakathi kozinzo nolawulo lwedemo-demokhrasi kunye nolawulo lwezomthetho. Kwixesha lokutshintsha okunzulu kwezopolitiko kunye nokutshintsha ngokukhawuleza, ukusetyenziswa kwendlela yokuzichaza ngokungqongqo komgaqo-mthetho kunye nokuzinziswa kwawo.

Ukuqhubeka ufunda, jonga iZiko loMgaqo-siseko wesizwe ukwenzela izibonelelo zemfundo kumGaqo-siseko wase-U.S., uhlola I-Cornell Lw Information Institute eqwalaselweyo yomGaqo-siseko , okanye uhlolo lwezigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo kwiprojekthi ye-[[FLT:]]