Isiseko Soxinzelelo: IBhili Yamalungelo, IUnited States, Nokumiselwa Kokhetho

UMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S. wadala inkqubo edityanisiweyo yolawulo, enamagunya ahlukeneyo phakathi korhulumente wesizwe kunye namazwe. Olu kwakhiwa, urhulumente, yayinzelwe ukugcina ulawulo loburhulumente ngexesha unika urhulumente ulawulo olubaliweyo. Noko ke, iBhili yokuqala yamaLungelo ````Ishumi'' elungiswe kurhulumente worhulumente'. Njengoko kuchazwe kurhulumente [[FLT: 0]] Barron v. Baltimore [1833], iNkumbuso ePhakamileyo yayikholelwa ukuba iBhili yamaLungelo ayizange imisele nyathelo lokulawula. Ngokufutshane inkulungwane, amatyala ayekhululekile ukumisela ukhuseleko lwawodwa, ikhokelela kumahluko omkhulu kulo lonke ilizwe. Olu guqulo lungaphakamisa umbuzo ongundoqo kwisithembiso sokuvumela inkululeko kurhulumente olunelo?

Impendulo yavela kuMphetho-Mgaqo-nkqubo weshumi elinesine wesiThandathi, wagunyaziswa ngo-1868. Amalungelo awo okanye ama-Immonities Claus, i-Actry Procession Claus, kunye ne-Linganiso-Claus Procesting, ngokwenxenye, ukuqinisekisa ukuba awazifaki izigwebo amalungelo amakhoboka namanye abesandul'ukukhululwa. Noko ke, ekuqaleni iNkundla ePhakamileyo yawachaza amalungelo okanye ama-Immonion Claus e-Iaste ngokufutshane kakhulu ku ] ICases-Nd House [1873], ngokunempumelelo i-ognomescesss zomthetho wesizwe engawahlulanga amalungelo ayo okusebenzisa amaLungelo kumaphondo. Endaweni. Endaweni, iNku yajika kwiNkuhlela i-Inter Claus Claus njengesignome njengesigneze-octive ye-octives.[9]

Ukukhetha asikokusebenza okupheleleyo kweBhili yamaLungelo. Endaweni yoko, yinkqubo yetyala-sicatshulwa apho iNkundla ePhakamileyo igqiba ukuba ilungelo elithile "lixhomekeke kwicebo lethu lenkululeko eyoyiliweyo" kwaye ngoko ke kufuneka lisebenze kumaphondo. Le ndlela ibonakalisa ukuxinana okukhoyo kulawulo: ukulingana kwamalungelo esizwe ngokunxulumene novavanyo lwesizwe kunye nolawulo. Ukuqonda olunzulu oluphakathi kwetyala elingundoqo, ukuqiqa okusemthethweni emva kokuququzelelwa, kunye nengxoxo eqhubekayo ngokulungelelanisa okufanelekileyo phakathi kwamandla orhulumente nolawulo.

IsiHlaziyo Seshumi Elinane: IBhulorho Phakathi Kwamalungelo Omanyano Nesenzo Sesizwe

Phambi kokuba kuqalwe ukuqukwa, umGaqo-siseko wawufuna inkqubo yokudibanisa amaphondo. ISindululo soMqathango seMsebenzi weMsebenzi weMdaba we-14 seSinethi soMsebenzi ka-Claus sisithi: "Kwaye nawuphi na uMbuso uza kumhluba na umntu ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho." Ngoxa ibinzana lithetha ngokucacileyo "inkqubo yangaphambili," iNkundla iye yayitolika ukuba iquke ukhuseleko olusezantsi olunokwahlulwayo , oko kukuthi, inkululeko ethile ibaluleke kangangokuba akukho rhulumente inokuba inokuba iphazamisa, kungakhathaliseki ukuba inqubo esetyenziswayo. Le "iphakamisa inkqubo efunekayo" imfundiso isekelwe ekukhetheni.

Okungeyomfuneko ````Inkundla'')) yakhuthazwa nguMgwebi uHugo Black, owathi endaweni yoko waqhubeka nenkqubo yomthetho. Njengesiphumo, amanye amalungelo aye afakwa, ngelixa abanye besala bengenamgaqo (njengoko umthetho wesiThathu weSindululo ungekho kwisahlulo sesizwe samajoni, i-Forth Confectioned's. . [1947] [i-FLT]] [1947]) kwaye endaweni yoko yaqhubeka nenkqubo yeqhinga. Oku kumele ukuba kumele ukunyanzelelwa kwetyala kwetyala kwe-orhulumente: iNkuNkundla yeNkundla ihlale ingenawo ingenawo intlawulo (njengomthetho wesithathu wesahlulo-Gastmergamenter).

Ityala Eliyintloko LeNkundla Ephakamileyo: Isicelo Esifanelekileyo SeBhili yamaLungelo

Umgca wexesha wokudibanisa okukhethiweyo libali lotshintsho lolwandiso, oludla ngokuqhutywa lulwazi olugqwethekileyo lwezigwebo olusekelwe kubulungisa obusisiseko. Ngezantsi kukho izigwebo eziphawula ingqalelo ezisebenzisa amalungelo athile kumazwe, kunye nonyaka wokuqulunqwa komGaqo-siseko kunye nolungiselelo olubandakanyekileyo.

Inkululeko Yokuqala Yokwenziwa Kohlaziyo

  • Gitlow v. New York (1925) – Inkululeko yokuthetha nokucofa. Inkundla yasebenzisa igalelo lokuthetha elikhululekileyo ngokudlula kwi-Mdlalo woLawulo we-145 ka-Claus, nangona yaxhasa ukunyamela kukaGitlow phantsi komthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho. Eli tyala lavula ucango lokuqulunqela amalungelo oMphengululo wokuqala.
  • Nearb v. Minnesota (1931)[FL]] – Inkululeko yokucofa (ukuthintelwa). INkundla yaquka ukhuseleko ekuthintelweni kwangaphambi kokuthintelwa, ukubetha umthetho karhulumente owavumela ukucinezelwa kweempapasho ze "Ityala".
  • Cantwell v. Connecticut (1940) – ukuqhelisela unqulo ngokukhululekileyo. INkundla yasebenzisa inkululeko yonqulo yokuHlaziya yokuqala ukukhusela imicimbi yombuso.
  • Everson v. Board of Education (1947) – Ukumiswa kuka-Claus. INkundla yaquka uthintelo kukumiselwa konqulo lukarhulumente, ixhasa inkqubo karhulumente eyahlawula imali yabafundi besikolo se-parachoial phantsi kwengcamango "inzuzo yomntwana".

Amalungelo Ezaphuli - mthetho

  • Mapp v. Ohio (1961) – umthetho wokushenxiswa kweSine soLawulo. INkundla yasebenzisa umthetho wokuba ubungqina obufunyenwe ngokungekho mthethweni bungasetyenziswa enkundleni yephondo, iphinda iphicothe ngokuphawulekayo uphando lolwaphulo-mthetho kurhulumente.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)--6th Amendmented lungelo lokunika ingcebiso. INkundla yacela ukuba kunikwe igqwetha kumagqwetha angenamali yokuhlawula, ulwandiso olukhulu lwezibophelelo zokukhusela.
  • [[NTLA:0] Miranda v. Arizona (1966)-5 IsiHlanzi lungelo lokuzilungisa ngokuchasene nokuziphikisa. INkundla yafuna ukuba amazwe athobele izilumkiso zikaMiranda (kulungile ukuhlala athule, enelungelo kwigqwetha) phambi kokuncinwa kwegunya.
  • [[NTLA] Duncan v. Louisiana (1968) – IsiHlanzi seSithandathu sokuLandliswa kwetyala lejaji elinzulu. INkundla yaquka eli lungelo, iqinisekisa ukuba abamangalelwa betyala abajongene nezityholo ezinzulu bafumana ijaji.
  • Shashington v. Texas (1967) – inkqubo yesiBrathu yokunyanzeliswa kokuLandliswa kweMpatho-mvume ukufumana amangqina. INkundla yasebenzisa ilungelo lokunyanzela ubungqina inikele ukhuseleko.
  • iBenton v. Maryland (11969)[FL:1] – IsiHlaliso sesihlanu sokhuseleko kwingozi ephindwe kabini. INkundla yalawula imodeli yangaphambili yaza yadibanisa eli lungelo, ithintela iimeko ekuzameni umntu kabini ukwenzela isono esifanayo.

Amanye Amalungelo

  • ICicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad Co. v. Chicago – IsiHlaziyo sesihlanu sithatha igalelo. INkundla iquka imbuyekezo yempahla ethathiweyo ngurhulumente (kunye oko bekuphambi kwesakhelo senkqubo yangoku).
  • NAACP v. Alabama (1958) – Inkululeko yokuQhubela uLawulo lokuqala. INkundla yamkela ilungelo lokunxulumana njengenkululeko engundoqo kwimikhosi.
  • [[UMTL:0] Schilb v. Kuebel (1971) – uthintelo lwesiHlomelo kunyuso lwebheyile olugqithisileyo (nangokuba iNkundla yathatyathwa ukuba iquke ngaphandle kwempikiswano epheleleyo).
  • McDonald v. Chicago (2010) – ISeki Sonyuso-kuhlala nokuphatha iingalo. Kwisigqibo sencopho, iNkundla yasebenzisa uHlaziyo lwesibini kurhulumente nakurhulumente wasekuhlaleni, ihlasela ukuvalwa komlo wesibhamu eChicago.
  • Timbs v. Indiana (2029) – I-Seth Amendment Remist. INkundla yaquka olu khuselo, ilinganisela uqheliselo lwezwe.

As of 2025, only a handful of provisions remain unincorporated: the Third Amendment (quartering soldiers), the Fifth Amendment's grand jury requirement, the Seventh Amendment's civil jury trial right, and the EighthUkwalelwa komgaqo wokwamkelwa kwemali eninzi (ngoku efakwe [[FL:0]] amathumbu) `kodwa igalelo lebheyile eligqithisileyo lithathwa'.

Indlela Ekhethwa ngayo Imilinganiselo Yomanyano

Umanyano asiyongcamango emileyo. Ulwalamano phakathi kokuququzelela okukhethiweyo nolawulo lungaqondwa ngokutshintsha kathathu okusisiseko:

1. Ukufana kwamalungelo asisiseko esizwe

Phambi kokuqulunqwa, amalungelo ommi axhomekeke kweliphi ilizwe awayehlala kulo. Umzekelo, umntu otyholwe ngolwaphulo-mthetho e-Oregon unokuba nokhuseleko oluncinci lobuhlanga kunomnye umntu eNew York. Ukukhetha ukumisela umgangatho osezantsi wesizwe. Njengokuba iJaji Cardozo ibhaliwe kwi-. i-Connecticut [1937] [inkqubo] [ii-'37]), i-'UMsebenzi ka Classiale idibanisa kuphela loo malungelo "emphiniciso kwingcamango yenkululeko yoomda". Oku kuqinisekisa ukuba akukho zwe linokuwela ngaphantsi komgangatho ongundoqo. Isiphumo singumgangatho ongaphezulu [[FLT] kodwa hayi umgangatho wamalungelo olinganayo kumazwe. Amazwe anokunikela ukhuseleko olungaphezulu kunolukhulu kumgangatho we-ogromaster, apho akhokela "ulawulo olunamandla"

2. Ukusikelelwa kwamapolisa aseburhulumenteni

Amandla amapolisa karhulumente .) ligunya elingokwemvelo lokukhusela impilo, ukhuseleko, ukuziphatha, kunye nentlalo-ntle jikelele. Ukukhetha oku kunciphisa la mandla xa kungqubana namalungelo aququzelelweyo. Umbuso awunakuwunyanzela umthetho onqanda ukutshiswa kweflegi njengendlela yokulwa kwezopolitiko (] [Johnson, 1989] ngenxa yokuba isiHlamli sokuqala senkululeko yokuthetha siyasebenza ngoku. Ngokufanayo, urhulumente akanakumkhanyela umgwebi wegqwetha, nokuba loo mgaqo-siseko wesizwe awuqiniseki kulungelo lwasekunene. Olu lwabiwo lukukudlulisela ngqo kwegunya kumazwe akwizwelonke, elihlala njengelikhulu ilungelo lokuthetha.

3. Igunya lezeejaji loManyano kwiiNkundla zeSizwe

Ukukhetha ukusetyenziswa kweNkundla ePhakamileyo kwandisa ngokuphawulekayo amandla eNkundla ePhakamileyo okuhlola iinkqubo zolwaphulo-mthetho zikarhulumente, ukumiswa kwemithetho, kunye nezenzo zolawulo. Xa umthetho wesizwe uphula ilungelo elisemthethweni, iinkundla zelizwe zingawenza angabi namsebenzi. Oku kwenza uvavanyo oluthe nkqo olungekhoyo kwirepublic yangaphambili. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ukuba oku kuthoba uburhulumente ngokuvumela abagwebi abangamiselwanga ukuba baphelise imigaqo-mthetho karhulumente enyuliweyo. Abaxhasi baphikisa ukuba iBhili yamaLungelo ayinanjongo ukuba amaziko anokuyityeshela, kwaye uLawulo lwe 1448 lwazimiselo lwalunenjongo ecacileyo yokumisela ummiselo wegunya.

Inkohliso: Ukulwa Nemfazwe Nokuqonda Kwasekuqaleni

Abachasi bokwenza oku kunyulwa kusoloko kukhuthaza ukuqondwa komGaqo-siseko kwasekuqaleni. Baphikisa ngelithi abaququzeleli beBhili yamaLungelo baye balwa ngabom ukuyisebenzisa kumaphondo, bekholelwa ukuba umgaqo-siseko wesizwe kunye neendleko zamalungelo zikarhulumente ziyakukhusela abemi. Umthetho weSijikelezo weshumi elinesithoba uqinisa ingcamango yokulawula amagunya agciniweyo. Ngokoluvo lwale mbono, uHlaziselo lweshumi elinesine lwalungacetyelwanga ukubhukula ukuphelisa elilungiselelwe kodwa kuphela ukuqinisekisa ukuba amakhoboka akhululweyo akhululekileyo (*) ukunyanzelisa iBhili yonke iBhili yamaLungelo kwiimeko. Umthetho uThomasko, uThomas, kwisivumelwano sesivumelwano se-Rhulumente phakathi [FL: 0] [FGonald Date]. [FLtic:1] [ith:] [ir, ulunxano oluthiweyo, lungancanyaniswayo, kodwa luthi lwabiwo olungundoqo, lungaso ke luthiswe lungaso ke luthi

Izicelo Zale Mihla Nemibuzo Engaconjululwanga

Ukukhetha ukusetyenziswa kwezixhobo kuyaqhubeka ukubumba amadabi asemthethweni akhoyo. Amatyala akutshanje abonisa indlela le mfundiso edibana ngayo nezithethe eziqhelekileyo kunye nobugcisa obutsha.

Uhlaziyo Lwesibini Emva Komnxeba

Kusukela kumjikelo-mcDonald v. Chicago (2010), amatyala abotshwe nguMnyibilikiso wesibini. Oku kuye kwakhokelela kucelomngeni lokumisela imithetho yolawulo lwemipu, ukusuka ekuvalweni kwezixhobo (ezifunyenweyo kwezinye iziphaluka, ezitshayelwe phantsi kwezinye) ukuthwala imiqathango. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi uRoseRifle & Pistol Association. Bruen [202]) ukwandisa umlinganiselo wokukhuselwa kweSibi soMgqomo-Gaqo-zi ngokufuna ukuba kuthethelelwe imithetho esekelwe kwimbali. Esi sigqibo sisemva kokukhetha ukuquququzelisa i-Dermentellity, ngenxa yokuba ichaze iNkuchaza iNkundla yasekuhlaleni kunye nentsingiselo yeNkundla yasekuhlaleni.

Izenzo Zezaphuli - mthetho Neenkundla ZeeNkundla Zaseburhulumenteni

Amalungelo olwaphulo-mthetho adityanisiweyo ahlala ekwindawo yedabi. Umthetho wokwahlulwa komthetho uncitshiswe kwiimeko ezifana Herring v. United States [2009], usebenzisa kuphela xa amapolisa enza ngemposiso okanye ngokungakhathaliyo ngamalungelo. Ngokufanayo, [[FLT]] Gideon[ ulungele ukukhutshwa ngenkqubo engafanelekanga yokukhusela uwonke-wonke kumazwe amaninzi. Ukukhetha kucwangcisa umgangatho womgaqo-siseko, kodwa uxakeke kusoloko kukhutshwa ukuthobela. Oku kuphakamisa ukukhuthaza: okuluncedo kokungakhutshwa kwe-R.

Inkqubo Efanelekileyo Yokuqhomfa Nenkqubo Engathandekiyo

Ngeli xesha ukudibanisa okukhethiweyo kusetyenziswa ngokuqhelekileyo ekusebenziseni iBhili yamaLungelo, iMsebenzi efanayo uCelas isetyenziselwa ukukhusela amalungelo angakhutshwanga (ingakumbi ilungelo lokuqhomfa Roe v. Wade]) [[FLT:] [2]] kunye [[FLT]]] ne[FLT, i-Casey[[[FLT]]] [[3]] [1992] [ilungelo lokukhupha i-amalungelo okungakhuselwayo]. Noko ke, kwindlela engundoqo yokukhuselwa kwendlela engundoqo. [[FLT].V.V.]

Ubuxhakaxhaka kunye neMida emitsha

Isenzo sokukhetha siyasebenza kumongo wangoku. Ukhuseleko loMphetho-mva wesine ekuphengululweni okungekho ngqiqweni luye lwasetyenziswa kugcino-lwazi lwamanani, njengaku Riley v. California (iimfuneko zeziganeko ze data yecell data yefowuni yokubanjwa) kwaye iUnited States[[FLT]] [[FLT] [208] [iimfuno yendlela] (imfuno yembali yenkcazelo yeseli-scrite). Le meko inwebela kwimimandla emitsha yobugcisa, inyanzelela ukunyanzelwa komthetho ukusetyenziswa komthetho. Izindululo lokuqala zokuzinziso lwenkululeko yokuthetha zisetyenziswe nakumgangatho wentlalo [FFT] [FFT] [5]

Isiphelo: Ubuntu Obunyamezeleyo Phakathi Kwamalungelo E - FUSETY noRhulumente Autonomy

Ulwalamano oluphakathi kokuzibandakanya okukhethiweyo norhulumente asiloxesha lokuzinzisa kodwa liyingxoxo eqhubekayo. Ngaphezu kwenkulungwane, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye ngokuthe ngcembe yasebenzisa iBhili yamaLungelo kumaziko, iqinisekisa umgaqo osisiseko wenkululeko kumntu ngamnye waseMerika, kungakhathaliseki ukuba uhlala kuphi na. Le nkqubo iye yomeleza inkululeko yomntu ngamnye kodwa ikwanamandla aphakathi kwi-judiary yesizwe, iphinda isebenzise umlinganiselo wegunya lolawulo lwaseMelika.

Abahlalutyi baphikisa ngelithi ukudibanisa okukhethiweyo kuthe konakalisa amaphondo njengeeklasi zedemokhrasi ngokufaka umgangatho omnye olingana nomlinganiselo. Abaxhasi baphikisa ngelithi amalungelo angundoqo akanakuthotyelwa kuguquko lwasekuhlaleni − ukuba ilungelo alilolonyani ukuba urhulumente akanakuyikhanyela. Zombini iimbono zinokufumana imvume, kwaye umbhalo woMgaqo-siseko ushiya indawo yokutolika. Njengoko ucelomngeni olutsha luvela . Ngokusuka kubuchule bokuzenzela izinto ukuya kwingini yomntu ozihlolayo, umbuzo uya kuphinda ubuye: Ngawaphi na amalungelo angundoqo kangangokuba akukho mbuso unokuwakhanyela? Impendulo iza kuqhubeka ukuchaza ulwalamano olukhethayo kunye noluhlanga olulawulayo ukuze kufike izizukulwana ezizayo.

Ukufundwa okubhekele phaya kwimbali yophatho olukhethekileyo, jonga i [[FLT: 0] iprojekthi yoqwalaselo lwezimo ezidityanisiweyo kunye ne [FLT] Cornell Information Information complition"'s. Ukungena kweqela lenjongo . Ukuntywila nzulu kuMphetho we 144, [[FLT:]] [FLT] izikomGawulalo zomgaqo-siseko wohlanga [[[FLT:]]] kunika uhlahlomelo lwengcaciso. Ingxoxo engaphaya kokuququluliweyo ibanjwa kuThomasko kuBangando [FLT:]] [FLD]] [5]

Ekugqibeleni, ukuqulunqwa okukhethiweyo kubonisa ukuba uburhulumente asiyondlela eqinileyo kodwa yinkqubo enamandla. Ivumela uhlanga ukuba lubhebhetheke ngexa lubhekisele kwisiseko solawulo olumabini. Lo gama nje umGaqo-siseko usaqhubeka, iinkundla ziza kuqhubeka zibuza ukuba yeyiphi inkululeko efunekayo "elungelelanisiweyo"/-/* kwaye xa zisenza njalo, ziya kubumba ulwalamano phakathi korhulumente wesizwe namazwe kangangamashumi eminyaka ezayo.