Ukwazisa

Inkqubo esemthethweni yakhiwe kwisiseko sobulungisa, ukungaguquguquki, nokuziphendulela. Esona siseko sayo, ifuna ukucombulula iimpikiswano, ikhusela amalungelo abantu, iphakamisa umthetho. Kule siseko, iinkundla zekhompyutha zisebenza njengomaleko obalulekileyo wobuveleli, ukuqinisekisa ukuba izigqibo zenkundla ezivavanyiweyo zihlolwa ngokuchanekileyo okusemthethweni, nokusesikweni. Ngokungafaniyo neenkundla zamatyala, ezigqiba izibakala zisebenzisa umthetho kwiimeko ezithile, iinkundla ze-appellate zigxininisa ngokupheleleyo kwimibuzo esemthethweni, ````iwith' umthetho womthetho ochasene negunya,' owenziwe ngokuphosakeleyo, okanye umthetho owenziwe ngokuphosakeleyo wasetyenziswa ngokuphosakeleyo. Eli nqaku linikela ukujonga ngokuphandle kwimisebenzi yeenkundla ezilawula iinkqubo zomthetho, iinkqubo zazo, iiprojekthi ezihlola iiprojekthi ezihlala zihleli.

Ziyintoni Iinkundla Eziza Kubulawa?

Iinkundla zetyala ziinkundla ezihlola izigqibo ezenziwa ziinkundla eziphantsi okanye amaqumrhu olawulo. Aziqhubeli matyala amatsha, aphulaphule ubungqina, okanye amkele ubungqina obutsha. Endaweni yoko, zihlolisisa ingxelo ebhaliweyo yetyala, kuquka iirekhodi, iingxelo, kunye neempikiswano ezisemthethweni, ukufumanisa ukuba umthetho wasetyenziswa ngokufanelekileyo. Kwizigwebo ezininzi, iinkundla ze-appelta zicalucalulwe ngokwezibo eziphakathi (ngokuqhelekileyo zibizwa ngokuba ziiNkungasese zeZinkundla zeZibheno) kunye nenkundla ephakamileyo (eyayaziwa ngokuba yiNkundla ephakamileyo). Umzekelo, iUnited States ineebugwebo obukwizigwebo obuli obuli-13 obubucala obubujonge izigwebo zephondo, kunye neNkulawula yephondo.

Isakhiwo Seenkundla Eziza Kuphandwa

Intlangano ephethe imigangatho

Isakhiwo seenkundla ze-appellate siyahluka-hluka ngokolawulo kodwa ngokuqhelekileyo silandela imodeli ye-piramid. Esisiseko ziinkundla zamatyala; ngaphezulu kwazo ziinkundla eziphakathi, yaye ngaphezulu zikho inkundla ephakamileyo. Eli qela leqela lemfundo livumela imigangatho emininzi yokuhlola, ukuqinisekisa ukuba iimpazamo ezingokwasemthethweni zingabanjwa zize zilungiswe ngaphambi kokuba isigqibo sibe sesokugqibela.

IiNkundla eziBalulekileyo zeSizwe

  • IiNkundla eziPhambili-Aphaphamenti: Amaphondo amaninzi anamatyala aphakathi avakalayo kwinkundla yamatyala. Imizekelo iquka iiNkundla zeSilifornia zesibheno kunye neeNkundla zeTexas zezibheno.
  • Inkundla ePhakamileyo yeState: Ezi ziinkundla ezigqibele ukuphethulwa kwimicimbi yomthetho karhulumente. Amanye amazwe, njenge New York, abiza iNkundla yabaphathi-mbheno ephakamileyo, ngoxa amanye, njengoTexas, eneenkundla eziphakamileyo ezahlukeneyo kwimicimbi yamakhaya neyolwaphulo-mthetho.

IiNkundla zezeNkundla

  • U.S. iiNkundla zezibheno: Kukho iziphaluka ezili-13,-11 zesithili, isekethe D.C. neFedera elinguFederal (esingatha amatyala agunyazi kunye naworhwebo lwamazwe ngamazwe). Isiphaluka ngasinye sineejaji ezininzi eziva amatyala kwiindawo ezilawulayo ezintathu.
  • Inkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S.: Inkundla ephakamileyo kwelo lizwe, equka amatyala asithoba. Ihlola izigqibo ezivela kwiinkundla ze-appellete ze imisela iinkundla eziphakamileyo xa kubandakanyeke umbuzo karhulumente.

UKhetho lwe-Ofisi kunye noKwalathisa Kwendawo Yolawulo

Abagwebi abaphunyezweyo basenokuba bamiselwe (abagwebi abangoorhulumente batyunjwa nguMongameli kwaye baqinisekiswe yiBhunga) okanye banyulwe kwezinye iinkqubo zikarhulumente. Ukulawula imithwalo enzima, izibheno ezininzi ziviwa ngamacandelo eejaji amathathu. Kwimeko ezinqabileyo, ezibalulekileyo, ezibandakanya imibuzo yezomgaqo-siseko okanye izigqibo zeqela elingqubanayo, inkundla epheleleyo ingahlala [[FLT: 0]n bac (nazo zonke iijaji ezisebenzayo ezithabatha inxaxheba).

Indima Yenkundla Eza Kupheliswa

Iinkundla ezifumana izicelo zisebenzisa imisebenzi emininzi enxulumeneyo. Indima nganye ibalulekile ekulondolozeni inkqubo elandelelanayo nesesikweni.

Ukuhlolisisa Izigqibo Zenkundla Ephantsi

Iinkundla zenkundla eziphantsi zivavanya izigqibo ezisezantsi ukuqinisekisa ukuba imilinganiselo esemthethweni isetyenziswa ngokufanelekileyo. Oku kuhlola kukhokelwa yimigangatho yokuzihlola echaza ukuba kungakanani ukuthotyelwa kwetyala elisezantsi. Umzekelo, imibuzo yomthetho (umz., utoliko lomthetho) iyahlolisiswa [ devo [umhla] (uphindaphindo olutsha)], ngoxa iziphumo zenyaniso ziphinda zihlaziywe ngokwempazamo ecacileyo . Izigqibo ezicacileyo, ezibonakala zicelwe zezo, zivavanywa [[[FLT:]] ukusebenzisa le milinganiselo, i-appte, i-empetholcel-act ne-actrivel.

Ukumiswa Kolawulo Lwasemthethweni

Omnye wemisebenzi ebalulekileyo yeenkundla ze-appellate ngukwenza umzekelo osisinyanzelo somthetho ngemfundiso ye tharess decisis (i-Latin ithetha “ukuma ngokwezinto ezigqitywe”). Xa inkundla ekhupha isigwebo esipapashiweyo, ukuba ukulawula kuyagunyaziswa kuzo zonke iinkundla ezisezantsi ezingaphakathi kolawulo lwayo. Oku kuqinisekisa ukuba amatyala afanayo agqitywe ngendlela efanayo, akhuthaza ukuxelwa kwangaphambili nokusesikweni. Umzekelo, iNkundla ephakamileyo yeNkundla yezolawulo yesine ebhaliweyo ikhuphe uluvo olupapashicilelweyo. [[[FLTLT] v ]] imisela inkqubo ye-athologo, ukudibana nokuhambana kwenkundla ezimele zilandele.

Imposiso Yolungiso

Iinkundla zetyala, phezu kwayo nje imigudu yazo elungileyo, maxa wambi zenza iimpazamo. Iinkundla zetyala zichaza kwaye zilungisa iimpazamo ezingokwasemthethweni, kuquka ukuchazwa kakubi komthetho, imigaqo ecacileyo, iimpazamo zejaji, kunye nokwaphula umthetho wenkundla. Noko ke, azizo zonke iimpazamo ezivumela ukuguqulwa. Iinkundla ze-appelte zisebenzisa impazamo [ engenamsebenzi [ umgangatho ofanelekileyo: ukuba impazamo ayichaphazamisi ziphumo zetyala, isigqibo senkundla esezantsi sisenokuma. Ngokuphikisana noko, iinkundla zezomthetho zisebenzisa impazamo [[FLT:] [ezinjalo ukukhanyelwa kwesiluleko]] (njengokwalahlulwa kwesiluleko) zifuna ukujika ngokuzenzekelayo.

Ukutolikwa Komthetho

Iinkundla zezicelo zinikela iinkcazelo ezigunyazisiweyo zemimiselo, imimiselo, kunye namalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko. Ngeembono zazo, zicacisa imithetho edidayo, zicombulula iingxabano phakathi kweenkundla ezisezantsi, kwaye ziphendula imibuzo yezomthetho ebhaliweyo. Lo msebenzi wokuchaza ubumba ubumba ubumbano lwemimandla yonke, `kusuka kumalungelo oluntu ukuze avume umthetho. Umzekelo, isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo Brown v. Board of Education [1954]

Inkqubo Eza Kufikelelwa Ngayo

Uhambo olusuka kwisigqibo senkundla esiya kwisigqibo sokugweba sibandakanya amanyathelo aliqela acwangcisiweyo. Ukuqonda le nkqubo kucacisa indlela iinkundla ezisebenza ngayo.

Ukubhala Isaziso Sesibheno

Le nkqubo iqala xa iqela eliphulukana nalo (i-“appellant”) lifaka isaziso sokubhenela ngexesha elimiselweyo ````````ientsuku ezingama-30''' kwimeko zorhulumente'. Esi saziso sibangela ukuba kulungiselelwe irekhodi.

Ukulungiselela Ingxelo

Umabhalane wenkundla echophela ityala uqokelela ingxelo equlethe onke amaxwebhu afanelekileyo: ukungcelelwa, ukunyathela, iirekhodi zokuvavanya, imiboniso, nesigwebo senkundla engaphantsi. Le ngxelo isisiseko esipheleleyo sokuhlola; akukho bungqina butsha buvumelekileyo.

Unikezelo Lweziqendu Ezifutshane

Omabini amaqela afaka iinkcukacha ezibhaliweyo ezifutshane. Impikiswano emfutshane yomngxuma wetyala elisezantsi, echaza igunya elisemthethweni kunye namacandelo engxelo. I-appelle (umbutho owaphumelela ngezantsi), ikhusela isigqibo senkundla esezantsi. Umxhasi angafaka impendulo emfutshane ukuphendula iimpikiswano ezintsha. Iimfutshane zilungiselelwe ngokungqongqo kwaye zisoloko zilinganiselwe kubude (umz., amagama ayi-13,000 kwiinkundla zolawulo zequmrhu).

Iimpikiswano Ezingaqhelekanga

Kwizibheno ezininzi, inkundla idwelisa iimpikiswano ezidluliselwa ngomlomo apho amagqwetha anikela izikhundla zawo kwaye aphendule imibuzo yabagwebi. Iimpikiswano zomlomo zisoloko zipheleliselwe kwimizuzu eli-15-30 macala onke. Abagwebi badla ngokusebenzisa eli xesha ukuphanda ubulwelo kwiingxoxo, ukuhlolisisa iintelekelelo, okanye ukucacisa izinto ezingento. Ngoxa zingezo zonke izibongozo eziquka impikiswano edluliselwa ngomlomo (ingakumbi ukuba abagwebi bayavuma ukuba iingxoxo ezifutshane zanele), kuhlala kulithuba elibalulekileyo lokubhenela.

Isigqibo nokhupho

Emva kokucazululwa, inkundla ekhupha ityala likhupha isigqibo esibhaliweyo. Izigqibo zinokuba zipapashiwe kwaye zibe yimodeli yesivumelwano, okanye engapapashwanga [ (ngokufuthi zigcinelwe amatyala acacileyo apho umthetho ucacile khona kwaye akukho mgaqo omtsha umiselwe). Kwezinye iziphakamiso, ezingapapashwanga zisenobubulumko kodwa zithwala ubunzima obuyekelelayo kuphela.

Ukuva OkungeyoNtu

Phambi kokuba isigqibo sibe sesokugqibela, iqela lingacela ityala le breacn ukuva, apho bonke abagwebi abakhutheleyo kwinkundla baphinda baliqwalasela elo tyala. Oku kunikwa kuphela kwiimeko ezingaqhelekanga, njengaxa isigqibo sendawo yolawulo singqubana nesinye isigqibo okanye siphakamisa umbuzo wokubaluleka okungaqhelekanga. Ukuvinjwa kwemiqathango kunqabile ``````````Ii-'''''''''''

Iindidi Zezigqibo Zenkundla

Iinkundla eziphandayo zineendlela eziliqela xa kulahlwa ityala. Uhlobo ngalunye lwesigqibo luneemfuno ezahlukeneyo kumaqela kunye nenkqubo esemthethweni.

  • Inkundla ye projekti ivumelana nesigqibo senkundla esezantsi kwaye iyakuvumela ukuma. Oku kwenzeka xa kungekho mpazamo ifunyenweyo.
  • Inkundla egwebayo igqiba kwelokuba inkundla esezantsi yenze impazamo eyingozi kwaye ibhukuqa isigqibo. Umzekelo, ukuba inkundla evavanyayo iyavuma ukuba ihemhem athe ummangalelwa, ukutshintsha kuyafuneka.
  • Ukudityaniswa: Inkundla edityanisiweyo itshintsha inxalenye yomyalelo wenkundla esezantsi.) ngokomzekelo, ukunciphisa umonakalo ibhaso eligqithisileyo (ngokunjalo ushiya ezinye zingenachaphaza.)
  • Ityala eligwetyiweyo lithumela ityala emva kwinkundla esezantsi ukwenzela ingcebiso ehambelana noluvo lwetyala. Uphinda-phindo lungayalela ukuvavanywa okutsha, ukucaphulwa, okanye izinto ezongezelelekileyo.
  • [[FLT: 0] Ityala elidityanisiweyo livala ugwebo lwenkundla esezantsi, isoloko idityaniswe neremand. Oku kunokwenzeka ukuba inkundla esezantsi ayinagunya okanye ukuba uhlawulo luguqulela ityala.
  • I-Dismissal:[ Isibheno singacinywa ngenxa yezizathu ezithe ngqo, ezinjengokungabikho kolawulo, ukungalawuleki, okanye ukungaphumeleli komntu ukumangalela.

Ukubaluleka kweeNkundla eziBalulekileyo

Iinkundla eziqulunqa ityala zibalulekile kwimpilo yayo nayiphi na inkqubo yomthetho.

Ukuqinisekisa Okusesikweni Nokulungisa Iimpazamo

Ngokunika ubuchule bokwenza uhlolo, iinkundla ze-appellate zisebenza njengomnatha wokhuseleko nxamnye neempazamo zomthetho. Kwanakwinkundla zamatyala ezibalekayo, iimpazamo ziyenzeka: ijaji isenokungawusebenzisi kakuhle umthetho wobungqina, ijaji isenokusebenza ngekhethe, okanye umthetho ungaqondwa ngokuphosakeleyo. Uhlolo lwephulo lunokuzibamba ezi mpazamo kwaye luqinisekisa ukuba abachaphazeli-mthetho bafumana isiphumo esilungileyo. Lo msebenzi uqinisa intembelo yokuba inkqubo esemthethweni iyakwazi ukuzilungisa.

Ukukhuthaza Ukungaguqu-guquki

Ngeembono ezipapashiweyo kunye nokugadwa kwe-decisis, iinkundla zezaphula-mthetho zidala iqumrhu elifanayo lomthetho. Amashishini, abantu, kunye namaqumrhu karhulumente angathembela kule mizekelo xa eceba ihambo yawo. Umzekelo, imithetho ecacileyo ngokucaciswa kwesivumelwano ivumela amaqela ukuba enze izivumelwano ngentembelo, anciphise ukuncitshiswa kwemithetho ebhaliweyo. Amaqela asenokufuna ukuthenga i-aum, apho amaqela angafuna ijaji yetyala lobuhlobo.

Ukukhusela Amalungelo Omntu Ngamnye

Iinkundla zezicelo ziinqobo zabagcini-mGaqo-siseko namalungelo omthetho. Zihlola izibhengezo zenkqubo efanelekileyo yokwaphulwa, ukuchaswa kwentetho ekhululekileyo, ukuphengululwa okungekho ngqiqweni, kunye nezinye iimpikiswano ezisekelwe kumalungelo. Ngaphandle kokuhlola, isigqibo esinye setyala eliphosakeleyo somgwebi sinokubasusa ngokungekho mthethweni ummi wamalungelo akhe. ILandmark amalungelo abantu afana ne Gideon v. Wainright (ekunene ukuba acelwe) kunye [[FLT:] imanda v. Arizona (ekunene) (ukuhlala buthulile).[ii-i-i-ixod ngokomthetho womthetho waseMelika.[FT]

Ukukhuthaza Uphuhliso Lwasemthethweni

Iinkundla zezicelo zizii-injini zendaleko esemthethweni. Njengoko ibutho litshintsha, kuvela imibuzo emitsha engokwasemthethweni, njengokusetyenziswa komthetho wobuqu kugcino-lwazi lwamanani okanye umgangatho wokhuselo lomongameli. Iingcamango zinika uhlalutyo olucacisiweyo olukhokelela kwimiba yexesha elizayo kunye nomthetho. Ngokuphendula imibandela yeencwadi, ziqinisekisa ukuba umthetho uyaqhubeka usabela kwiimfuno zangoku.

Iingxaki Ezijamelene Neenkundla Eziza Kuphandwa

Phezu kwayo nje indima yazo ebalulekileyo, iinkundla ezichanabayo zijamelana nemiqobo ebalulekileyo enokuthintela ukuphumelela kwazo.

Uxinzelelo Lomthwalo

Iinkundla zezicelo zisingatha amawaka etyala nyaka ngamnye. Ngokomzekelo, iiNkundla zeZibheno zase-U.S. zifumene iinkundla ezingama-40 000 ezifakelwe kwi-astcal ngonyaka wama-2023. Le mithombo yoluvo-sandi (iiziphumo zoluvo-sandi) kufuneka zifunde imifutshane nengxelo ethatha ixesha elide, iingxelo zophando ezintsonkothileyo, neembono zemizobo. Ukulawula, iinkundla ezininzi zixhomekeke kumagqwetha asebenzayo kwaye zimise impikiswano yomlomo. Noko ke, ukuthwala kwetyala okunzima kungakhokelela ekulibaziseni kwaye kunciphise ubunzulu bohlalutyo kwiimeko eziqhelekileyo.

Iimbambano Ezintsonkothileyo Zomthetho

Amatyala akhutshwayo adla ngokubandakanya imibuzo entsonkothileyo engokwasemthethweni efuna ubuchule kwiindawo ezifana nomthetho osemthethweni osemthethweni, umthetho wokuvalwa kwetyala, okanye umthetho wolawulo. Abagwebi kufuneka bakhawuleze bawafunde amacandelo abangawaziyo ukuze bafikelele izigqibo zesandi. Ezinye iziphaluka, njengeNkundla yezibheno zeFederal, zenzelwe ngokukhethekileyo imibandela ekhethekileyo, kodwa iinkundla zezopolitiko zisajongene namagophe okufunda aphezulu.

Umgaqo-nkqubo

Izigqibo ze-profile ephezulu .Qonda zisuka kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S.-ingabangela ingxoxo enkulu kawonke-wonke. Izityholo zomthetho okanye ukwenza izigqibo ezidibeneyo zithoba ukholo kwijaji. Ngoxa abagwebi abaphumezi-mthetho beqeqeshelwa ukusebenzisa umthetho ngokungakhethi, uluntu maxa wambi lugqalwa njengomthetho wezobupolitika. Olu celomngeni luye luba lukhulu xa ukumiselwa kwekomiti kusiba nengxwabangxwaba yezobupolitika.

Ukufikelela Kokusesikweni

Izibheno zinokuba ziindleko kwaye zifumane ixesha. Iimali zokufaka izicelo, iindleko zegqwetha, kunye nemfuneko yezishwankathelo ezishicilelweyo zidala imiqobo kumatyala amaninzi. Kwimeko zabemi, ilungelo lokubhena lisoloko likhona, kodwa kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho, urhulumente unika icebiso kubamangalelwa abangenwayo kwisicelo sokuqala kuphela njengesasekunene. Ukufaka isibheno sobulumko (umz., kwinkundla ephakamileyo okanye kwinkundla ephakamileyo ye-U.S.) ngokufuthi ufuna isicelo setyala le-certriary, okunqabileyo ukunikwa kweso siso singenamsebenzi. . .

Isiphelo

Iinkundla zezicelo ze-applette zisisiseko senkqubo esesikweni nethembekileyo. Ziqinisekisa ukuba iimpazamo ezingokwasemthethweni ziyalungiswa, ukuba imizekelo iyamiselwa ize ilandelwe, kwaye amalungelo ngamanye akhuselwe kwisenzo soburhulumente sobuqu. Ngokutolika imithetho kunye nokukhokela iinkundla ezisezantsi, akhuthaza ukuguquguquka kunye nendaleko kumthetho. Kodwa ajongene neengxaki zokwenene. Ngokwahlukileyo kumthetho. //ukubekwa kwetyala, iinkundla, ukuphikisana, ukuphikisana noluntu, nokufikelela kwimiqobo eqhubekayo. Ukuqonda umsebenzi weenkundla ze-appellatte stars kuyimfuneko kuye nawu nawuphi na ummi, igqwetha, okanye umenzi wemithetho oxabisa ukuphendula, nokulawula umthetho.

Ukuqhubeka ufundo: bona inkcazo yenkqubo ye-appeltate ye-application yezwelonke , i Cornell Legional Information Institute isikhokelo sokunikezela [, kunye nengxoxo yeMelika Bar Bar kulwahlulo lwezikhomputha nophuhliso olusemthethweni.