Table of Contents
Isingeniso: Ukuziphendukela Okunamandla Kwamalungelo Omthetho - sisekelo
UMthetho-sisekelo wase-United States, owagunyazwa ngo-1788, wamisa uhlelo lokubusa kodwa washiya izimiso zawo eziningi zivulekile ukuchazwa. Emakhulwini amaningi eminyaka, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yasebenza njengomsunguli wokugcina wencazelo yomthetho-sisekelo, ukunikeza izinqumo eziye zashintsha ngokuyisisekelo umphakathi waseMelika. Amacala achaza ukulingana kwamandla phakathi kwamagatsha kahulumeni, ukunwetshwa kwenkululeko yomuntu ngamunye, nokulungiswa kokungalungi komthetho. Lemithetho ayizange ivele ingabi yize; yasabela ezingxabanweni zezenhlalo, ingxabano yezombangazwe, futhi yaveza ukuqonda okungokolinganayo nenkululeko. Ukuqonda lamacala kubalulekile ekuqondeni ukuthi amalungelo omthetho awenziwa azimele kanjani kodwa ancishisiwe futhi alungiswa ngokuhlola ngokuhlola kokwahlulela.
Marbury v. Madison (103): Ibhedrock of Judicial Review
Isizinda Nomo
Emahoreni anciphayo okuphatha kukaMongameli uJohn Adams, kwenziwa isiphithiphithi sokumiswa kokwahlulela, kuhlanganise noWilliam Marbury njengobulungisa bokuthula. Lapho unobhala omusha woMbuso, uJames Madison, enqaba ukunikeza umsebenzi kaMarbury, uMarbury wanxusa iNkantolo Ephakeme ukuba ithole imvume yemandamus. Icala laphoqelela uMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall ukuba athathe indawo ebekwe icala ngokwezombangazwe phakathi kwabasubaleki be-Federalist no-Republicans.
Ukucabanga Okungokomthetho Nemiphumela
UMarshall wayenombono onamandla. Wamemezela ukuthi iMarbury yayinelungelo lokuya enkambisweni yakhe kodwa iNkantolo Ephakeme yayingenakuyikhipha impinda ngenxa yokuthi iSiqeshana 13 soMthetho weJadiary ka-1789, okuthiwa inikeza iNkantolo amandla, ngokwayo yayingenamthetho. Ngokokuqala ngqá, iNkantolo Ephakeme yaqinisekisa amandla endima yokubukeza [[FLT:]] [[FLT]]] [igunya lokushaya imithetho ephikisana noMthetho-Mpayini. Isinqumo sagwema ukuphikisana okuqondile negatsha eliphethe ngesikhathi esisodwa lapho imisa indima ye-jadiary yegatsha elingu-hulumeni.
Ithonya Lamalungelo Omthetho - sisekelo
Marbury v. Madison wamisa iNkantolo ePhakeme njengemhumushi yokugcina yoMthetho-sisekelo. Ngaphandle kwalesi sibonelo, izinqumo ezilandelanayo njengeBrown v. Board of Education and Obergefell v. Hodges ubengeke abenalo igunya eliyisisekelo lokuqeda umbuso nemithetho kahulumeni. Icala lihlala liyisisekelo somthetho-mthetho waseMelika, liqinisekisa ukuthi izenzo zomthetho-mthetho nezobuqondisi zihlala zingaphansi kwemingcele engokomthetho-mthetho. Ukuze ufunde ngokuqhubekayo, [FLT: 0] jonga isifushaniso sika-Oyez se-Marburyrybrium v. Madison[FLT]
Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Ukudida “Ukuhlukanisa Kodwa Kuyalingana”
Isizinda Nomo
Emashumini eminyaka ngemva kwesinqumo Plaby v. Ferguson (1996] wagunyaza ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ngaphansi kwemfundiso “ehlukeneyo kodwa elinganayo”, imikhaya yaseMelika yaqhubeka ihlushwa ngaphansi kwezikole eziphansi, izakhiwo zomphakathi, kanye nezinto zokuhamba. Ekuqaleni kwawo-1950, iNaACP Legal Defense Fund, iholwa nguThurmark Marshall, wahlela inselele inselele ehlangene ekuhlukaniseni izikole zomphakathi. Icala lahlanganisa amacala amahlanu ahlukene, nendodakazi ka-Oriver Brown Linda inqatshelwa ukwamukela isikole esimhlophe esiyinhloko eTonika, eKansa.
Ukucabanga Okungokomthetho Nemiphumela
IJaji eliyinhloko u-FL Earren warren wanikeza umbono ovumelanayo owalahla Plessy. Inkantolo yathi izakhiwo zemfundo ezihlukene zazingalingani ngokwemvelo, zincisha izingane ezimbalwa zamathuba alinganayo emfundo ngisho nalapho izakhiwo ezingokoqobo nezinye izici eziphathekayo zazilingana. Isinqumo sasixhomeke [ku- i-Equal Protection Clause[[ yeSigqi seSiphendulo se-14 [inguquko se-Pregidime] futhi zikhonjiwe ngezifundo zengqondo ezikhonjiwe ezibonisa imiphumela elimazayo yezingane zaseAfrika.
Ithonya Lamalungelo Omthetho - sisekelo
Brown v. Board of Education ayizange iqede ngokushesha isigaba sesikole somthetho wesikole, kodwa yanikeza isisekelo esingokomthetho senhlangano yamalungelo abantu. Yabonisa ukuthi ijaji lalingeke lisakubekezelele ukucwaswa kwesizwe futhi lalungisa indlela ye-Civil Rights Act ka-1964 kanye ne-Voting Rights Act ka-1965. Ukuze uthole imininingwane eyengeziwe, vakashela i-Library of Brown’s Congress . Board umboniso we-.
UGideon (1963): Ilungelo Lokweluleka
Isizinda Nomo
Clarence Earl Gideon wayengumuntu ompofu ohambayo owayebekwe icala lokugqekeza egumbini lokuhlala eFlorida. Engenamali yokuthenga ummeli, wacela inkantolo ukuba imise ifomu. Umbuso waphika isicelo sakhe, futhi uGideyoni waphoqeleka ukuba azimelele; walahlwa futhi wagwetshwa iminyaka emihlanu ejele. Esitokisini sakhe, uGideyoni wafaka isicelo eNkantolo Ephakeme, waphikisa ngokuthi [[FLT:] ISAKTYth Isimemezelo [ saso] saphulwa icebo. INkantolo yavuma ukuzwa icala lakhe.
Ukucabanga Okungokomthetho Nemiphumela
Esinqumweni esihlanganyelwe, iNkantolo Ephakeme yalawula ukugcinwa kwayo kwasekuqaleni Brady v. Brady (1942), eyayibekelwe imingcele yeseluleko ezimweni ezikhethekile. IJaji uHugo Black yabhala ukuthi abameli basenkantolo yobugebengu badinga izinto ezimqoka, futhi ukuthi isiqinisekiso seSimemezelo seSithathu sezelo sezeluleko sisebenza kumazwe nge-Classie [ I-Umstry Classie [[[FLT]] yeSichimende se-14. INkanto yathi noma imuphi umuntu ongene enkantolo ompofu kakhulu ukuba aqinisekise ukuqulwa komthetho ngaphandle kokuba kunikezwe iseluleko.
Ithonya Lamalungelo Omthetho - sisekelo
UGideon v. Wainwright waguqula isimiso somthetho sobugebengu. Amazwe kwakudingeka amise izimiso zomphakathi zokuvikela ukuze anikeze abamangalelwa abakhohlisiwe abasemthethweni. Lokhu kugcizelela isimiso sokuthi isimiso sobuthakathi sixhomeke ekulinganiseni kwezikhali (/) ngaphandle kommeli, impi ayilungile. Ihlala iyikhombatha likamthetho futhi ikhonjwe emacaleni amaningi alandelayo.
Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Ukuvikela Ukumelana Nokuzilimaza
Isizinda Nomo
U-Ernesto Miranda waboshwa ePhoenix, e-Arizona, emangalelwa ngokuthumba nokudlwengula. Ngemva kwamahora amabili ephenywa amaphoyisa, wasayina isivumelo esasisetshenziselwa ukumbeka icala. Akazange atshelwe ilungelo lakhe lokuthula noma ilungelo lakhe kummeli. Abameli bakaMiranda baphikisa ngokuthi ukuvuma izono kwakuphoqelelwe ngoba kwakutholakale ngaphandle kwalezi zixwayiso, kwephula ISichibiyelo Ilungelo lokuzimela [[FLT]
Ukucabanga Okungokomthetho Nemiphumela
Umbono kaMahluleli omkhulu uWarren wamisa isivikelo esisha: amaphoyisa kumelwe azise abasolwa ngamalungelo awo ngaphambi kokuphenywa kwelungelo lokuthola imvume. Icala manje elibizwa ngokuthi i-fameliar “iZixwayiso zeMiranda” lihlanganisa ilungelo lokuthula, ukuthi noma yini eshiwoyo ingasetshenziswa kuwe enkantolo, ilungelo lommeli, nokuthi ummeli uzomiswa uma ungenakukwazi ukunikeza. INkantolo yanquma ukuthi noma isiphi isivumo esitholakala ngaphandle kwalezi zixwayiso asifaneleki enkantolo.
Ithonya Lamalungelo Omthetho - sisekelo
Miranda no-Arizona bashintsha ngokuphawulekayo imikhuba yamaphoyisa ezweni lonke. Nakuba abanye begxeka njengokuqiniswa komthetho, lesi sinqumo saqinisa ukuqina kokuvuma izono nesimiso sokuthi uhulumeni kumelwe ahloniphe amalungelo abantu ngisho nalapho ephishekela ubulungisa. UMranda uhlala ewuphawu oluyinhloko lwemidlalo yobugebengu kuthelevishini kodwa umphumela wangempela ujule kakhulu: unikeza indinganiso ecacile, ephoqelelwe yokuvikela ekuzifuneni ukumelana nomthetho ophoqelelwe.
U-Long v. Virginia (1967): Ukulahla imithetho elwa ne-Miscegeneation
Isizinda Nomo
URichard Loving, indoda emhlophe, noMildred Jeter, owesifazane oNsundu, bashada eWashington, D.C., ngo-1958. Lapho bebuyela esifundeni sabo saseVirginia, bamangalelwa ngokuphula umthetho kahulumeni wezinhlanga zobuhlanga, owawunqabela ukushada kwabantu abahlukene ngokwezinhlanga. Banxusa ukuba bagwetshwe unyaka ejele (beboshwe ngesimo beshiya umbuso), futhi bathuthela eD.C. bezimisele ukubuyela ekhaya, abakwaRose Wase-Rose wabe wabekela umthetho inselele ngosizo lwe-ACLU.
Ukucabanga Okungokomthetho Nemiphumela
IJaji eliyinhloko uWarren laphinde labhala umbono ovumelanayo. INkantolo yaphetha ngokuthi umthetho kaVirginia wephula umthetho womabili weSivikeli sika Claus kanye ne-"Duetiod Procession Clause weSimemezelo se-Grandment. INkantolo yanqaba impikiswano yokuthi umthetho wawungasebenzisi umthetho wecala ngoba wawusebenza ngokulinganayo kuzo zombili izinhlanga, ingasho ukuthi wawuklanyelelwe ukugcina imithetho emhlophe. Isinqumo sashaya phansi i-anti-miscegenation esazi sezincwadi 16.
Ithonya Lamalungelo Omthetho - sisekelo
Lowesivumi Virginia waqinisekisa ukuthi umshado uyilungelo eliyisisekelo nokuthi ukuhlelwa kohlanga kungaphansi kokuhlola kokwahlulela okuphenya kakhulu. Yasusa izithiyo ezibangelwa umbuso ezivimbela ukuhlukanisa izinhlanga futhi yabeka isibonelo esibalulekile emacala alandelayo ahilela ilungelo lokushada, kuhlanganise obergefell v. Hodges [2015]. Icala lihlala liyisibonakaliso esinamandla sesivikelo somthetho-mcimbiso womuntu siqu nokulinganisa.
I - United States v. iNixon (1974): Akekho Ongaphezu KoMthetho
Isizinda Nomo
Phakathi nehlazo laseWatergate, umshushisi okhethekile waqopha amakhasethi kanye nezincwadi zezingxoxo phakathi kukaMongameli Richard Nixon kanye nezinsiza zakhe. UNixon wathi unelungelo lokubulala futhi wenqaba ukuhambisana nalo, ephikisa ngokuthi amakhasethi avikelwe ekwambulweni. Icala laveza ukuphikisana okuqondile okukhona phakathi kwesicelo sikamongameli sokufihla imfihlo nesahluleli sesidingo sobufakazi ekuphenyeni ngecala.
Ukucabanga Okungokomthetho Nemiphumela
IJaji eliyinhloko uWarren Burger, ummisi womthetho weNixon, wanikeza umbono ovumelanayo. INkantolo yaqaphela ilungelo eliphezulu elifanelekayo lokuxhumana nomongameli kodwa yathi alinakusetshenziswa ekuvikeleni ubufakazi ekumangalelweni kwecala. Isidingo sobufakazi ekuqulweni okulungile sadlula isithakazelo esivamile sokufihla imfihlo. INkantolo yayala uNixon ukuba aphendule amakhasethi, okwaveza ukuhileleka kwakhe ekuthuleni. Ukumelana noNixon, ukuhoxa, ukuthatha imvume ngokushesha ngemva kwesinqumo.
Ithonya Lamalungelo Omthetho - sisekelo
I-United States v. Nixon yagcizelela isimiso esiyisisekelo sokuthi uMongameli akawudluli umthetho. Samisa ukuthi ijaji linegunya lokufuna igatsha eliphetheyo ukuba likhiphe ubufakazi ngaphansi kwe-poen. Icala futhi labeka isiqalo sempikiswano yamuva ngelungelo lobubusi, kuhlanganise naphakathi kwabaqondisi be-Clinton no-Trump. Lisalokhu liyiphengululo elinamandla ngamandla emandla kamongameli.
Intambo eqinile (i-Rade (1973): Imfihlo ne-Reproduction Autonomy
Isizinda Nomo
Norma McCorvey, ngaphansi kwegama le-nagnome “Jane Roe,” wabekela umthetho waseTexas umthetho wokuthi ukukhipha isisu kwaphambaniswa ngaphandle kokulondoloza ukuphila kowesifazane. Icala laliyingxenye yecebo elibanzi labameleli bamalungelo okuzala ukuba izinkantolo ziqaphele ilungelo elingokomthetho lokukhipha isisu. Ngaleso sikhathi, amazwe amaningi ayenemithetho evimbela ukukhishwa kwezisu, futhi abesifazane babevame ukufuna izinqubo ezingekho emthethweni nezingaphephile.
Ukucabanga Okungokomthetho Nemiphumela
Umbono woMahluleli uHarry Blackmun wawuthi unelungelo lokukhipha isisu ngasese , oboniswa yi-Ustry Procesme Clause yeSichibiyelo se-14, wahlanganisa isinqumo sowesifazane sokuqeda ukukhulelwa kwakhe. INkantolo yamisa uhlaka olulinganiselwe: phakathi nomxebe, umbuso awunakulawula ukukhishwa kwesisu; phakathi nowesibili, ungalawula ukuvikela impilo yowesifazane; phakathi nesesithathu, ngemva kokuphumelela, ungavimbela ukukhishwa kwesisu ngaphandle kokuphila kowesifazane noma impilo.
Ithonya Lamalungelo Omthetho - sisekelo
Roe v. Wade waba esinye sezinqumo eziphikiswana kakhulu emlandweni waseMelika. Yamisa ukukhishwa kwezisu ngokomthetho ezweni lonke futhi yabangela izimpi eziqhubekayo zezombangazwe nezezomthetho mayelana namalungelo okuzala. Nakuba isinqumo saphendulwa Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization[ [2022], ibuyisela lendaba ezindaweni, ifa likaRoe lihlala liyikho ukuqashelwa okuphawulekayo kwezindaba zomthetho-mthethwe-mfa. Icala futhi labuye lashoshozela ezinye izinqumo eziseduze, njengelungelo lokusebenzisa ukuvimbela inzalo kanye nelungelo lokusondelana.
Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Ukulingana komshado ngemibhangqwana efanayo ye-Scover
Isizinda Nomo
UJames Obergefell noJohn Arthur babehlangene iminyaka engaphezu kwengu-20 lapho u-Arthur egula kakhulu. Bahamba besuka e-Ohio beya eMaryland, lapho umshado olinganayo wobulili wawusemthethweni, ukuze bashade. Lapho u-Arthur eshona, i-Ohio yenqaba ukubala i-Obergefell njengomlingane osele esitifiketini sokufa. U-Obergefell sued, futhi icala lakhe laqiniswa nokunye ukuvinjelwa okunzima emshadweni owe-exter nokwenqaba ukuqaphela imishado efanayo.
Ukucabanga Okungokomthetho Nemiphumela
Umbono weningi likaMahluleli u-Anthony Kennedy (5-4) wakholelwa ukuthi ilungelo lokushada liyilungelo eliyisisekelo eliqinisekiswe [u- I-Duery Procession Claus kanye ne-Equal Protection Claus [[ yeSigqizo somshado seSichibiyelo se-14. INkanto e-Nkantolo ithola ukuthi umshado uphakathi kwe-I-Implate, i-ikhuni, nesithunzi, kanye nokwesinye imibhangqwana exico kufanele ijabulele ukuqashelwa okungokomthetho njengemibhangqwana emelene ne-exthex. Isinqumo sahlasela phansi ukuvinjelwa komshado okufanayo ku-1950 kuzo zonke izigaba.
Ithonya Lamalungelo Omthetho - sisekelo
Obergefell v. Hodges yayiwukunqoba okuguqulayo kwe LGBTQ+ amalungelo. Yaxazulula impikiswano ehlukanisayo yesizwe futhi yanikeza imibhangqwana elinganayo engenela umshado, kanye nezinzuzo zayo ezingokomthetho kanye nokuqashelwa komphakathi. Icala futhi lakhiwe esibonelweni esisukela ku Liveting v. Virginia kanye ne[FLT] United States v. Windsor (2013]), ebonisa indlela isivikelo somthetho womthetho womuntu siqu nokulingana okuzivelela esikhathini esingaphezu kwesikhathi.
Ezinye izingcezu: UGideon, i - New York Times v. Sullivan, noHeller
UGideon (1963)
Njengoba kuxoxwe, uGideon wamisa ilungelo lokweluleka abamangalelwa abangemthetho. Kuyisici esibaluleke kakhulu seSichibiyelo se-SIXTY futhi uqinisekisa ukulunga kwesimiso sokwahlulela kobugebengu. Ukuze ubheke ngokujule kakhulu, bheka i-Cornell Legal Information Institute [].
New York Times v. Sullivan (1964)
Lelicala laguqula umthetho wenkululeko yokukhuluma ngokulinganisela ikhono lezikhulu zomphakathi lokumangalela ukunyundelwa. Inkantolo yathi iSichibiyelo Sokuqala sidinga ubufakazi becala elingokoqobo” ukuze kutholakale umonakalo emithethweni elethwa yizibalo zomphakathi. Lesi sinqumo sanikeza isivikelo esiqinile sokugxeka izikhulu zikahulumeni futhi saba isisekelo senkululeko yokunyathelisa. Ngaphezu kwalokho, sibhekisela empendulweni yecala [Oyez’s.
Isigodi saseColumbia v. Heller (2008)
Heller wayeyicala lokuqala leNkantolo Ephakeme lokuchaza ISichibiyelo [s] esivikela ilungelo lomuntu lokuba negobolondo ekhaya. Isinqumo sashaya iWashington, D.C. ukuvinjelwa kwesandla futhi savusa izimpikiswano eziqhubekayo mayelana nemithetho yezibhamu. Saqaphela ilungelo kwesokudla njengelingenamingcele nelokunxele njengegumbi lokuzibeka izibhamu ekhaya.
Isiphetho: UMthetho - sisekelo Ophilayo
Izimo eziphawulwe ngezwe ezinjengalezo ezixoxwe ngenhla zibonisa ikhono loMthetho-sisekelo lokukhula nokuzivumelanisa. Kusukela ekumiseni ukubukezelwa kokwahlulela Marbury v. Madison ukuqaphela ukulingana komshado owehlayo v. Hodges[, iNkantolo Ephakeme iqinisekisiwe ngokuphindaphindiwe ukuthi amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo awaqiniswanga ngesikhathi. Isinqumo ngasinye sisabela emphakathini, ezombangazwe, nasemongweni wenkathini yayo, futhi abaningi baye babangela impikiswano enzima futhi ngisho nasemuva. Kodwa inqubo yokuchaza umthetho-mthetho iqinisekisa ukuthi incwadi yokusungula ihlala ibalulekile emakhulwini amaningi eminyaka. Kubafundi, nakulezi zimo ezifanayo, zinikeza ibala lenkululeko yesizwe futhi ukuqondana kulo ngokomthetho wokuqonda.