Isingeniso

Amaphoyisa oMbuso asebenza eqenjini eliphambili lomphakathi lobuphathi bokuhleleka, enomthwalo wemfanelo onzima wokulondoloza ukuphepha kuyilapho ehlonipha amalungelo ayisisekelo. Imihlangano yesifunda nezenzo ezingekho emthethweni . "Izibhicongo ezizenzakalelayo noma iziphazamiso zomphakathi" ihlola imingcele yegunya lamaphoyisa. Izimo ezingokomthetho ezilawula lezi zimo azilulanga noma azihlangene; zisebenzisa umthetho wezomthetho, izinhlelo zomthetho, amasiko avamile, namalungelo omphakathi emhlabeni wonke. Ukuqonda lezi zimo akubalulekile kuphela ezisebenzini zomthetho kodwa nakwabaqondisi bemithetho, izakhamuzi abafuna ukulandisa. Lesi sihloko sihlola izimiso eziyinhloko ezingokomthetho ezigunyazazisayo, ukunqanda, ukuvinjelwa, nokubukezwa kwezenzo zamaphoyisa lapho kuphathwa ngokungekho emthethweni, futhi kunezibhebhebhethengiselwa phambili ekuhleleni kwezindinganiso zabantu ngabanye.

Isisekelo Esingokomthetho Sesenzo Samaphoyisa

Imibuso yamaphoyisa ebhekene nezibhelu nemibuthano engekho emthethweni ivela emithonjeni eminingi engokomthetho. Le mithombo ichaza ukuthi amaphoyisa angangenela nini, ukuthi anamandla ani, nokuthi yiziphi izinqubo okumelwe zilandelwe. Indlela eqondile yokuhlela iyahlukahluka ngokwemithetho, kodwa izici ezivamile zihlanganisa imithetho elandelwayo, izimfundiso zomthetho ezivamile, nesiqinisekiso somthetho.

Imithetho Eqoshiwe

Imibuso eminingi iye yamisa imithetho eqondile enika amaphoyisa amandla okuphatha imibuthano esongela ukuhleleka komphakathi. E-United Kingdom, Public Order Act 1986 [ [njengoba ilungiswe kabusha] ingumthetho oyinhloko. Ichaza [[[FLT:] [[FLT]] [[FLT:] [2] [12]] (abantu abasebenzisa ubudlova obungekho emthethweni ngenjongo efanayo), [[FLT:] ukuphazamiseka okunonyathiwe , [[FLT], [[FLT] [FFLT] [FLT] [FLT] [FF:7]]. Isenzo sinikeza amaphoyisa amandla okubeka izimo ezinhlanganweni kanye nasebuthweni.[5]

E-United States, akukho mthetho owodwa kahulumeni olawulayo; kunalokho, kunemithetho yabo siqu. Ngokwesibonelo, i-California Penal Code ichaza isigaba 404-406 somhlangano ongekho emthethweni (abantu ababili noma ngaphezulu abahlangene ukwenza isenzo esingekho emthethweni noma ukwenza isenzo esingokomthetho ngendlela enobudlova) futhi isiphithiphithi (noma yikuphi ukusetshenziswa kwempoqo noma ubudlova ngabantu ababili noma ngaphezulu okuphazamisa ukuthula komphakathi). Amazwe amaningi futhi anezenzo [[FLT:] [[FLT: 0] [izenzo ezigunyaza izikhulu ukuba zikhiphe umthetho futhi zibophe labo abasele. Umthetho ongaziwa kakhulu kodwa obalulekile umthetho obalulekile [FLT] [FFURN] [12] [9] [12], ogunyazweyomthetho ka-Prencergs ) ogunyazwe yi-Active [1] enzilective] futhi ingumthetho osetshenziswa kakhulu.[5]

Imithetho yokumisa imithetho ikhuluma ngamathuluzi okusebenza akhona emaphoyiseni. Imithetho eminingi yombuso igunyaza ngokuqondile ukusetshenziswa kwezikhali ezingekho ngokomthetho (igesi, izinhlamvu zenjoloba, ama-can amanzi) phakathi nezibhelu, ngokuvamile ezingaphansi kwezimo ezinjengesixwayiso sangaphambili noma imizamo yokususa uhulumeni. Ezinye izifundazwe, njengaseJalimane nase-U.S., zidinga amaphoyisa ukuba akhiphe isixwayiso esicacile ngaphambi kokusebenzisa amandla ukuze kuxoxwe umhlangano. Imikhawulo nezinqubo ezithile kumelwe zibhalwe ukuthi ziqinisekise ukuthi zinecala.

Izimiso Zomthetho Ezivamile

Umthetho ovamile, ikakhulukazi emazweni azuza ifa lesiko lomthetho wesiNgisi, unikeza izimiso eziyisisekelo eziphelelisa imithetho. Umqondo wasendulo wenhlangano engekho emthethweni [ usukela emuva ezikhathini zangenkathi ephakathi, ekuqaleni ukwenza ubugebengu emibuthanweni eyayisongela ukuthula kweNkosi. Ngaphansi komthetho ovamile, inhlangano iba yisigebe-mthetho uma abantu abathathu noma ngaphezulu behlangana ngenjongo yokuphula ukuthula noma ukwenza noma ukwenza noma isiphi isenzo esingekho emthethweni. Umthetho ovamile waqaphela futhi [[FLT:] i-ft] yesakhamuzi [[FLT:] [FT:] [2] [5], nakuba kusetshenziswa umthetho wempi].[5]

Umthetho ovamile wamisa futhi i-principle yesidingo , evumela amaphoyisa ukuba asebenzise amandla anengqondo ukuze avimbele ukulimala okuseduze. Emkhakheni wesibhelu, lesi simiso sithethelela izenzo ezingaba ezingekho emthethweni (umz., ukungena entweni yangasese, evimbela abantu ngabanye) uma nje belingana nosongo. Icala laseNgilandi, njengaye, Thomas v. Sawns [13], bekholelwa ukuthi amaphoyisa angangena emhlanganweni wangasese ukuze avimbele ukwephulwa kokuthula (nempikiswano) kodwa inqubo eqhubekayo. Nokho, izinkantolo zanamuhla, ziye zagcizelela ukuthi umthetho ovamile awukholeki; kumelwe asebenzise amalungelo omthetho omthetho omthetho ongokomthetho kanye nawo.

Umthetho - sisekelo Namalungelo Abantu

Mhlawumbe izithiyo ezibucayi kakhulu ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho ezisenzweni samaphoyisa zivela ezivikelweni ezingokomthetho-mthetho zokuhlangana ngokukhululekile nenkulumo. E-United States, iSichibiyelo sokuqala siqinisekisa ilungelo lokuhlangana ngokuthula. Nokho, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yasekela ukuthi uhulumeni ungabeka isikhathi esilinganiselwe, indawo, nezindlela zokuvimbela. Amaphoyisa angase angaxoxi ubudlova obuhlangene ngenxa yesigijimi sayo; kumelwe abe nobufakazi bokuthatha isinyathelo sokungabi namthetho esiseduze noma usongo olusobala lomphakathi. Icala lesifunda Brandenburg v.[ [1269]] [11]) livumile ukuthi ukukhuthaza ubudlova buvikelekile ngaphandle kokuba kuqondiswe ekuvuseleni inqubo eseduze yokungabi namthetho futhi ngokunokwenzeka likhiqiniswe. Lemingcele engokwezinga elivamile yamaphoyisa ukuba angene ekumelaneni kwezombangazwe ekumelaneni kwezombangazwe.

EUnited Kingdom, uMthetho we-Human Rights Act ka-1998 uhlanganisa i-European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). ISiphakamiso 11 sivikela inkululeko yokuhlangana nokuhlangana, kuyilapho iSiphakamiso 10 sivikela inkululeko yokuveza. Nokho, bobabili bangaphansi kwemingcele ebekwe [ engokomthetho[ ne efunekayo emphakathini wentando yeningi [[[FLT:]] ngenjongo yokuhlanganisa ukuvikela umphakathi, ukuvinjelwa kwesiyaluyaluyalu, nokuvikelwa kwamalungelo abanye. INkantolo yaseYurophu yamalungelo eHluntengo ehlangene ekhululekileyo ayizange igcizelele ukuthi noma isilinganiso. [[FLT:] .[FLD] .[FLD [FF:] [200] [200]

I-International Party on Civil and Political Rights [[FFLT:1] iqinisekisa futhi ilungelo lokuhlangana ngokuthula (i-Artle 21) nenkululeko yokukhuluma (Artle 19). i-UN Rights Committee General Declate No. 37 2020) inikeza isiqondiso esiningiliziwe ngemithetho engokomthetho: [[FLT:] i-UN KP] ifanele ilinganiswe, i-acentination, ne-odictritination . i-ogravition of the general Commentstion’s thist (iirights) iqinisekisa ukuthi izinhlangano zemithetho ziqeqeshelwe ukuhlonipha lamalungelo phakathi nemisebenzi yokulawula izixuku. [FLD:] Izimiso eziyisisekelo sokusebenzisa i-Minitho yomthetho [FFoctives][5] [FFF]) ezingokomthetho ongokomthetho osekelwe ngokusekelwe ngokomthetho, futhi, ukulandisa, isilinganiso.

Izikhungo Ezingokomthetho

Nakuba amaphoyisa ngokwemvelo efisa ukuqonda okukhulu lapho izimo zishuba, kukhona iziphakamiso ezingokomthetho ukuze kuvinjelwe ukuxhashazwa nokugcinwa komthetho. Lemingcele ayizona izithiyo ezivimbela amaphoyisa alungile; ayizivikelo ezithuthukisa ukwethenjwa okusemthethweni nomphakathi.

Isabelo Nesidingo

Izimiso ezimbili ze nezimiso ze- kanye zisezingeni eliyinhloko lokusebenzisa amandla okungokomthetho. Ngaphansi komthetho wezwe lonke nezimiso eziningi zasekhaya, amaphoyisa angasebenzisa amandla kuphela uma kudingekile ngempela ukufinyelela umgomo osemthethweni, futhi ngisho nalapho, izinga lamandla kumelwe lilinganiswe kusongo. Lokhu kusho ukuthi izindlela ezingavumelani nemithetho engokomthetho, futhi uma zisetshenziswa, zingaba inani eliphansi elidingekayo. Ukubhikisha ngokuthula ngezikhalazo noma ngokudabuka izinyembezi kungaphazamisa izinga lokuhlangana ngaphandle kokuba ukuhlangana kuphenduke ubudlova noma ukusongela okungathi sína.

E-United States, icala leNkantolo Ephakeme Graham v. Connor (1998) yasungula ukuthi ukuzisholo kokuphoqelelwa okukhulu phakathi nokuboshwa kuyahlolwa ngaphansi kweSijijitheki sesine “ukucabangela”. Lendinganiso icabangela ubuqatha bobugebengu, ukuthi osokusolayo usongo olusheshayo yini, futhi ukuthi usola umelana nonya uyalwa. Nakuba Gram usebenza ekuboshweni komuntu ngamunye, izinkantolo ziye zasebenzisa ukucabanga okufanayo ekulawuleni izimo zesixuku. Isibonelo, [kusukela ku- [ult:] u-augen. [FLT] [FFF:] [5] [2004] [204], isho inkantolo eyaziwa ngokulinganayo eyaziwa kakhulu, noma i-osethi enzile iziya kakhulu.

Amalungelo Abantu Ayacatshangelwa

Umthetho wamalungelo abantu wezizwe zonke umisa izibopho ezengeziwe ezingase zingabanjwa ngokugcwele ngemithetho yasekhaya. iNkantolo yase-Europe yamaLungelo e-Human isungule indikimba yomthetho wecala ephethe amaphoyisa ngokumelene nokuviva. Oya a - Ataman v. INkantolo engokomthetho [ [200] [200]] [6], iNkantolo yathola ukwephulwa kweSipha 11 lapho amaphoyisa asebenzisa khona i-gassssss'a ne-anon ukuze akhiphe ukuviviswa kwemvelo ngaphandle komzamo wokuhlola ukubaluleka kwelungelo lokuhlangana. Inkantolo yagcizelela ukuthi ngisho nemingcele engokomthetho kumelwe ihlolwe ngokucushela. Ngokufanayo, [FLT:]

Izinhlangano zamalungelo abantu ziye zafaka izenzakalo lapho amaphoyisa asebenzisa khona amandla angenakulinganiswa asekelwe ohlazweni noma ezombangazwe zobuphikisi. Ikomiti ye-UN e-Reconsotion of paration of paration (CERD) iye yanxusa izinhlangano ukuba zithathe izinyathelo zokugwema ukubuswa kweqembu labantu. Ngokwesibonelo, phakathi ne-2020 George Floyd e-United States, imibiko evela kuyi-ACLU and Human Rights Watch yabonisa ukuthi umthetho ngokuvamile ukucindezela ngokumelene nababhikishibhisi bamaBlawuli ngamazinga aphakeme kunabathathi abamhlophe ezimweni ezifanayo. Izingaholela ezinkingeni ezingokomthetho ezivikeli ezilinganayo nangaphansi kwezimiso ezivamile ezihlukene zezizwe zonke.

Imingcele Yesikhathi, Indawo, Neyomuntu

Ngisho nemibuthano enokuthula ingaba ngaphansi kwemingcele enengqondo. Ohulumeni bangamisa izimfuneko zemvume, banikeze iziphakamiso zezentengiselwano, futhi babeke isikhathi esilinganiselwe . Uma imingcele ikhona i-authone-neutral, ilinganiswe, futhi ishiye eminye imikhondo yokuxhumana. INkantolo Ephakeme e v. Rock Against Racial [19] ikholelwa ukuthi uhulumeni angalawula umsindo onyusiwe ekhonsathini ye-paki ngaphandle kokwephula iSichibiyelo Sokuqala, uma umthetho ufanelekile ngaphandle kokuqukethe. Ukucabanga okufanayo kusebenza ekubukiseni imigwaqwele nemihlangano.

Nokho, lapho imingcele iba umthwalo kakhulu noma isetshenziswa ngokungenangqondo, ingaba ukuphikiswa kwelungelo lokuhlangana. Ngokwesibonelo, ifuna ababhikishi bathole imvume kumphathi wamaphoyisa ongazange aphike imvume yokulahla iSichibiyelo Sokuqala (bona Shutlesworthworth v. Birmingham[FL:1], 1969). [Ku-UK, i-Public Orct Act 1986 inikeza amaphoyisa amandla okubeka izimo ezinhlanjeni nasemihlanganweni, kodwa lezozimo kumelwe zisekelwe enkolelweni enengqondo yokuthi ukuphazamiseka okungathi kubi, ukulimala kwempahla, noma umphakathi kuyoba khona ukulawulwa kwezehlakalo. Inkantolo ziyokuchazwa ngokungenakuphikiswa okukhulu; uvalo oluvamile.

Ukuziphendulela Ngokomthetho Nokulandisa

Uma amaphoyisa edlula imingcele engokomthetho, abantu bathinteka ngezindlela eziningi ezingokomthetho. Amakhambi omphakathi ahlanganisa izenzo zokuboshwa okungamanga, ukuhlaselwa, ibhetri, ukumangalelwa ngecala, nokuphulwa kwamalungelo omthetho-sisekelo noma abantu. E-United States, 422 U.S.C. . . . . . . . . . . vumela abantu ukuba bafake isifundazwe kanye nezikhulu zendawo ngenxa yokuncishwa amalungelo esizwe ngaphansi kombala womthetho. Lo mthetho uye wasetshenziswa kakhulu enkantolo ekwahluleleni amandla amakhulu phakathi nokubhikiselwa.

EUnited Kingdom, ummangaleli angase athathe isinyathelo somphakathi sokuphamba icala kulowo muntu noma ukuboshwa ngamanga, noma afune umonakalo ngaphansi koMthetho wamaLungelo kaHuman Rights 1998 ngenxa yokwephulwa kwamalungelo eNgqungquthela. Ngaphezu kwalokho, amaphoyisa angase athotyelwe iHhovisi elizimeleyo lobuPolice Epial [IOPC) ekuhloleni izenzakalo ezingathi sína. I-OPC inamandla okutusa ukuqulwa kwecala noma ukukhomba i-RCHPUTY SERCUITUIT Inkonzo (CPS) yezelele.

Amakhambi obugebengu ahlanganisa ukumangalelwa kwezikhulu ngazinye ngokuhlaselwa, amabhetri, noma ukubulawa kwabantu ezimweni ezimbi kakhulu. Nokho, ukumangalelwa kobugebengu ngamaphoyisa akuvamile ngenxa yomthwalo osobala kakhulu nokweqiswa okuvame ukunikezwa amaphoyisa ahlukene angomzuzwana. Izimiso zamaphoyisa eziqondisayo zangaphakathi nazo zinendima yazo, kodwa abagxeki baphikisa ukuthi abanazo iziqu zomuntu ozimele nobona obala. Amanye amagunya aye amisa izikhundla ezikhethekile zezobungamele − ezinjengamabhodi okuhlola ukuziphatha okuxekethile kwezakhamuzi.

Izinselele Nezinguquko Zesikhathi Esizayo

Izici zomthetho azikho ezikhona; zishintsha ngenxa yobuchwepheshe obusha, ukushintsha kwemibono yabantu, nezincazelo zokwahlulela.

Ukusetshenziswa Kwezikhali Ezingahanjisi

Ukusetshenziswa kwamakhemikhali e-irritant (igesi eyingozi), i-kinetic yemiphumela ebangela ukuhlangana ngokuthula (izinhlamvu ze-ruber, i-bean bean sages), kanye nemishini yokuzwa (LRADs) kuye kwabangela ukucubungula okuqinile ngokomthetho. Ngezinye izikhathi izinkantolo ziye zathi ukusebenzisa izikhali ezinjalo kulwisana nabavikeli abangalwi abalwayo kuphula ilungelo lokuhlangana ngokuthula. Ngokwesibonelo, [[FLY:0]] Getatel v. Umnyango we-Texas Wezenterfective ezase-Foty[[FLT] [12]] [201], inkantolo yesifunda ivumele ukumangalelwa abagadla ababhishi abambalwa abadubula izikhali ezingabanga usongo oluseduze. Inkantolo yabonisa ukuthi amandla ayengenasilinganiso esilinganisweni. Ngokufanayo, iNkakhulu leNkakhulu leNkathi ye-Bosbon [12] [12] [20] futhi yatholwa yizihlweni (irgov]) phambi kwemistrugle).[20]

Amanye amagunya manje avimbele noma avimbele izikhali ezithile ezingasasebenzi kakhulu. Iziqondiso ze-United Kingdom’s Home Office zigcizelela ukuthi amabhulorho (izinhlamvu ze-pastic) kufanele asetshenziswe kuphela ezimweni ezinzima kakhulu futhi ngemvume ephakeme. E-United States, amadolobha anjengePortland, Oregon, avimbele ukusetshenziswa kwegesi yezinyembezi zokulawula isixuku ngaphandle kwezimo eziphuthumayo. Nokho, izinselele ezingokomthetho ziyaqhubeka, futhi izinhlangano zamaphoyisa zivame ukuphikisa ngokuthi izikhali ezinjalo ezivimbelayo ziyakwazi ukuvikela ukuphepha komphakathi.

Imishini Yezobuchwepheshe Nemithombo Yezokuzijabulisa

Izehlakalo zanamuhla zihlelwa kaningi ngezezenhlalo, futhi amaphoyisa aye aphendukela kakhulu ekuhloleni imishini ukuze ahlole futhi abikezele imihlangano engekho emthethweni. Izilungiselelo ezingokomthetho zokuqapha ziyahlukahluka kakhulu. E-US, iSichibiyelo sesine sokuvimbela ukuphenya okungenangqondo nokuqubuka sisebenza ekulandeleni imikhondo ye-mitayela kuphela uma kukhona ukulindela okunengqondo kwezindaba zomuntu siqu. Izinkantolo ziye zasekela ukuthi ukugadelwa kwezezezokuxhumana kwabantu ngokuvamile kuyavunyelwa, kodwa ukuthola indawo yangempela yemininingwane ezindaweni zamangqamu efuna isiqinisekiso. I-UK’s’s of Expressigatives Act 2016 inikeza isisekelo esingokomthetho semithelingo yezokuxhumana, kodwa i-Act iye yagxekwa amaqembu abantu ngenxa yokungamele ukuvikela izigelezelelwa.

Izinselele ezingokomthetho ziye zagxila nasekusebenziseni ubuchwepheshe bokuqapha ubuso phakathi nokubhikisha. Emachazeni okungaphuzi. [eSouth Carolina[FL:1] [1963], iNkantolo yaqaphela ilungelo lokuhlangana “ngokuthula” ngaphandle kokwesatshiswa uhulumeni. Ukuba khona kwamakhamera nodwendwe kungabangela ishwa elibi kulelo lungelo. Ku-UK, iNkantolo yokudlulisa Amacala R [Bridges] v. isikhulu se-South Wales Police [[FLT:] 2020] sathi ukusebenzisa i-octives yokuqamba ubuso kobuso okungagunyaziwe yi-mfazime ngenxa yokunga kahle ne-mfazime engokomthetho. Lokhu kubangela ukuba amaphoyisa ahluleke ukubusa kwezeluleksi yezelelwa.

Ukuhlanekezelwa Nokuvela Kwawo

Ukuphakama kwe okungangeni ngokomthetho kanye [[FT:2] kanye no [FLT] ngokomthetho kubhikishwa [[ [1] njengokudlova ngo 2011 , njengenhlangano yama-Occuny Lives Actaty Main" kuphikisana. Imithetho engokomthetho icabanga ukuthi abahleli basobala futhi bangafakwa engxoxweni. Uma ingxabano ivela ngokushesha ngaphandle kwesimiso esingokomthetho, amaphoyisa angalwa ukusebenzisa isikhathi, indawo, nendlela engokomthetho. Ezinye imingcele ziye zamukela umthetho odinga ukuzama ukunqanda ukuxhumana nokuxhumana phambi kokusebenzisa amandla, ngisho nokuhlangana ngokuzenzakalela. Isibonelo, i-New York'[FL:4] [FF] i-proctalct:[2]

Isiphetho

Izinqubo ezingokomthetho zokuphatha amaphoyisa kahulumeni ukusingatha imihlangano engekho emthethweni nezibhelu aziyona nje imithetho engokomthetho; zimelela isibopho somphakathi sokulinganisela ukuhleleka komphakathi ngenkululeko eyisisekelo. Ukwakha okuqinile okungokomthetho kunikeza imingcele ecacile yokungenela kwamaphoyisa, kuqinisekisa ukulandisa lapho leyomingcele inqamule, futhi kuvikela ilungelo lezakhamuzi lokuhlanganisa nokuveza izikhalo. Izimiso eziphoqelelwe, ukulinganisela, nokungaguquguquki komthetho kumelwe kuqondise zonke izinyathelo zomthetho, kodwa futhi ukwandisa ukuthenjelwa komphakathi okubalulekile, kusukela esinqumweni sokuqala sokungenela ekukhetheni amacebo nezikhali. Njengoba kuvela ubuchwepheshe obusha nezinqubo zokubhikisha, izintambo nezinkantolo kumelwe ziqhubeke zilungisa lezi zicilongo zokuvikela kokubili ukuphepha nenkululeko. Izimiso zomthetho ezivumela ukuthobela ukuthobela okungokomthetho nokubonakala kumelwe zinciphise ukuncishiswa komphakathi kuphela kodwa futhi zakhe ukuthemba umphakathi okubalulekile ngenxa yentando yentando yentando yeningi.

Ukuze ufunde okwengeziwe: