Umqondo wobukhosi ungenye yemibono ehlala njalo nephikiswana kakhulu emfundisweni yezombangazwe, umthetho, nasebuhlotsheni bezizwe zonke. Ichaza umthombo oyinhloko wegunya phakathi kwendawo eboshiwe, umsunguli wokugcina wokwenza izinqumo, nomthombo wamandla angokomthetho. Kodwa kukho konke ukuphakama, ubukhosi bulokhu buphikisana kakhulu: osebenzisa ngempela lombuso ophelele, futhi impendulo iye yadlula kanjani phakathi kwamakhulu amaningi eminyaka nezimiso zezombangazwe? Lesi sihloko silandelela incazelo yobukhosi kusukela ekusungulweni kwayo kwakuqala ngoshintsho lwanamuhla, sihlola onamandla obukhosi obusebukhosini emibusweni ehlukene, futhi sihlola amandla aphikisa ubukhosi obuye futhi abuguqulayo namuhla.

Ukuchaza Ubukhosi

Igama elithi lisuka e-Latin lisuka e-upersonanus — elisho ukuthi “phezulu” noma“unyunyu.” kakade eNkathini Ephakathi, abaqondisi nabefundisi basebenzisa umqondo wokuchaza igunya lesikhathi esiphezulu kakhulu, elihlukile emandleni esonto. Kodwa umqondo wanamuhla owenziwe emakhulwini eshumi nanhlanu namashumi amahlanu nanhlanu nanhlanu, ikakhulukazi emsebenzini wesazi sefilosofi esingumFulentshi uJean Bodin. [[FLT:]] Kuyo [4] Izincwadi zeSikomu esivamile [Fold:], uBoin [ult:], ubukhosi obungachazwayo kanye nobubanzi benani elikhulu” esazi somthetho ongokwemvelo, futhi engavumelani nomthetho owemvelo (ngemthetho owenziwe ngomthetho, umbusi).

Thomas Hobbes walola lo kukhulelwa uLeviathan (1651). Kubo uHobbes, ubukhosi buvela esivumelwaneni somphakathi lapho abantu benikezela amalungelo abo angokwemvelo kumbusi oyedwa noma umkhandlu ukuze bancintisane nokulondeka nokuhleleka. Amandla ombuso angenamkhawulo, ngoba noma ikuphi ukulinganisela kungadala indlela emuva “kuwo wonke umuntu.” Lombono we-bsolutism uthobe kakhulu ekwakheni kwezwe laseYurophu.

Izincazelo zanamuhla ziye zathoba iBodin ne Hobbes. Isazi sezenhlalo uMax Weber sagcizelela ukuthi ubukhosi ngokuyinhloko buphathelene nokuba khona kobudlova obungokomthetho endaweni. Isazi somthetho wezizwe zonke uLassa Oppempheim sibuchaza ngokuthi “igunya eliphakeme, igunya elizimele noma yiliphi elinye igunya lasemhlabeni.” Kubesayensi bezombangazwe, ubukhosi buqondwa njengenamacala amabili: ubukhosi be-international [[ [igunya lobukhoma] phezu kwezindaba zasekhaya) kanye nombuso wezentellime [FLT] wezombangazwe [i] [isigaba:]

  • Amandla okwakha, okuchaza, nokuphoqelela imithetho.
  • Lawula imingcele nengcebo yendawo.
  • Ikhono lokusebenzelana nabantu bakwamanye amazwe nokungenela izivumelwano.
  • Ikhono lokumemezela impi nokuqondisa amabutho ahlomile.
  • Igunya lokukhokha intela nokuphatha isimiso sezomnotho.

Ubukhosi buyindaba eqanjiwe engokomthetho futhi engokoqobo. Bunikeza umbuso ilungelo lokubhekwa njengelilinganayo nezinye izifundazwe, njengoba nje buphoqelela izibopho ngaphansi komthetho wezwe lonke.

Izinhlobo Zobukhosi

Izazi zezombangazwe zihlukanisa izinhlobo eziningana zobukhosi, ngasinye sikhanyise izici ezihlukahlukene zombuso.

Ubukhosi Obungokomthetho bumelene Nobukhosi Bezombangazwe

ubukhosi be-Legal bubhekisela egunyeni elingokomthetho, elimiswe ngokomthetho-mthetho lokwenza umthetho. Ngokwesibonelo, eUnited Kingdom, iPhalamende liyinkosi ngokomthetho ngoba akukho nhlangano ekwazi ukudlula imithetho yayo. ubukhosi obungokobuProtalicism, ngokwehlukile, ichaza lapho amandla asebenzayo ekhona ngempela, futhi kunezithakazelo ezinamandla, amaqembu empi, noma iqembu elibusayo. Umbuso wezomthetho nowezombangazwe ungantshontsha. Umbuso we-mthetho nomthetho-sigeqe: ungabalula abantu, kodwa umlawuli weqembu lezombangazwe.

Ukubusa Okuthandwayo

Imfundiso yobukhosi obuthandwayo[[FLT: 1] ikholelwa ukuthi bonke abaphethe uhulumeni bathathelwe ekuvumeni kwababuswayo. Lomqondo wawusemqoka ekuvukeleni kweZinguquko zaseMelika naseFrance, ubekela inselele iziphakamiso zelungelo laphezulu. Kuhulumeni wentando yeningi, abantu bawumbusi ophethe, usebenzisa amandla ngokhetho, ama-apenteum, nezinhlangano ezimeleli. Nokho lomqondo awunciphi ngaphandle kokucindezelela: ingabe abantu bangabusa ngempela, noma bamane nje bagunyaze umthetho wezikhulu?

Ukubusa Kwangaphandle

ubukhosi be-Internal amakheli abusa ngaphakathi kwezwe. [[FTL:2] ubukhosi be-External [ buphathelene nokuzimela kukahulumeni esimisweni somhlaba wonke. Umbuso ungaba nobukhosi obugcwele ngaphandle − obungabonwa ezinye izifundazwe, kanti ubukhosi bangaphakathi buncintiswane (umk., phakathi nempi yombango). Ngokuphambene, umbuso ungase ube nokulawula okuqinile ngaphakathi kodwa ulinganiselwe ngaphandle kwe-Implase (umz., isimo sesiphuphutheli).

I-de Jure iphikisana nombuso

ubukhosi bejare buyilungelo elingokomthetho lokubusa, kuyilapho i-cometho metho ingubukhomba langempela lokusebenzisa amandla. Uhulumeni odingisiwe angasho ukuthi udede jure ubukhosi phezu kwendawo ongeke uyilawule; umbusi wempi angasebenzisa ubukhosi obude ngaphandle kokuqashelwa ngokomthetho. Ubukhosi, khona - ke, bungacubungacubungulwa njengengxenye ehlukene kunempi.

Ukuguquka Kobukhosi Okungokomlando

Umqondo wokuthi indawo echazwayo kufanele ibe negunya elilodwa, eliphakeme liyincwadi engokomlando.

Isivumelwano SaseWestphalia (1648)

I-Peace of Westphalia, eqeda iMpi Yeminyaka Engamashumi Amathathu, ivame ukuvezwa njengesiqalo sesimiso sombuso wanamuhla. Yamisa izimiso zobuqotho bendawo, ukungaphazamisi kwezindaba zasekhaya, nokulingana kwemibuso ebusayo. Nakuba izazi zamuva ziye zayifanelekela inganekwane “yeWestphalian,” izivumelwano zaphawula ukushintshwa kwegunya elingokomthetho elingokwenkolo ebukhosini bezwe, bendawo. Umbusi, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi isikhulu noma iRepublic, manje wayeseyijaji lokugcina emingceleni yakhe.

Ukukholelwa Ebuntwaneni Nokuhlangana Kwezenhlalo

Ngekhulu leshumi nesikhombisa neleshumi nesishiyagalombili, amamonarchy aphelele eFrance, ePrussia, naseRussia agxila ekubuseni kumbusi oyedwa. Izazi zefilosofi ezinjengo Hobbes noBodin zathethelela lokhu kugxiliswa. Kodwa isiko lesivumelwano sezenhlalo laveza futhi izivumelwano eziphikisanayo. uJohn Locke waphikisa ngokuthi ubukhosi buhlala nabantu ekugcineni, abanika amandla kuhulumeni ongancishwabadela uma uphula amalungelo emvelo. UJean-Jacques Rousseau umqondo ka “ungwelerio" uchazwa ngobukhosi obuhlangene bezakhamuzi, obungasoleki futhi obungancitshiswa.

Inkathi Yezinguquko

I-American Revolution (1776) kanye neNguquko yaseFrance (1789) yahumusha lemibono yaba yiqiniso lezombangazwe. ISimemezelo se-Independent sagomela ukuthi ohulumeni bathola “amandla abo alungile ngokuvumelana nokubusa kwababuswayo.” ISimemezelo saseFrance samalungelo abantu nesaseSizwe samemezela ukuthi “isimiso sokubusa konke sihlala esizweni ngokuyinhloko.” Lezizenzakalo zashintsha ubukhosi babusa abantu, zimisa isigaba sentando yeningi yanamuhla.

Ubukhosi Bangemva Kwekoloni

Ekhulwini lamashumi amabili, ukuvuselelwa kwemingcele yezobuzwe kwanwetshwa kwafinyelela ezindaweni ezazibuswa i-Asiya, i-Afrika, ne-Caribbean. Isimiso sokuzinquma ngokwaso saba isisekelo esiyinhloko seSiphakamiso seZizwe Ezihlangene. Nokho, izifunda eziningi ezisanda kuzibusa ezizuzwe njengefa ezingazange zifane nemiphakathi yezombangazwe yangaphambi kokuba ifike, okuholela ekubusweni okubuthakathaka kwangaphakathi nasezingxabanweni ezivamile. Umbango phakathi waba yi-jure ukuqashelwa kanye i-chactoro amakhono ahlala elungile.

Izinselele Zanamuhla Zobukhosi

Uma ikhulu lamashumi amabili leminyaka labona ukwanda kobukhosi embulungeni yonke, ikhulu lama - 20 leminyaka liye labona ukuguguleka kwalo ngezindlela eziningi.

Ukuhwebelana Kwembulunga Yonke

I-millivement ephakathi kwezindawo, inhloko- dolobha, abantu, nokwaziswa kuye kwanciphisa kakhulu ukulawula kwezwe kwezomnotho namasiko alo. Izinhlangano zamazwe ngamazwe zenza izinqumo zokutshala imali ezingadlula izimiso zesizwe. Izimakethe zezezimali zisabela ngokushesha ezinyathelo zikahulumeni, zicindezela ukuxhumana okungalawuleki. I-intanethi ye-intanethi, nakuba iphazamisa ukuxhumana, yenza ukuba ithonya lamazwe angaphandle nezinselele zikwazi ukulawula okunenzuzo.

Umthetho Nezinhlangano Zomhlaba Wonke

Izivumelwano nomthetho wezizwe zonke ubeka izibopho ezilinganisela ukuzikhethela kobuso bomthetho. I-Genocide Convention, i-International Paraven on Civil and Political Rights, kanye ne-Rome Triginte of the International Criminal Court konke kudala izinqumo ezibophayo. INhlangano yeZwe Lohwebo ifuna ukuba amalungu avule izimakethene futhi avume isinqumo esibophayo. Njengoba [[FLT: 0] I-UN Charter ngokwayo] ivuma, ukulingana okuzimele kwemibuso ehlala ndawonye nezibophoqeko zokulondoloza ukuthula nokhuseleko lwezizwe zonke zomhlaba. [nesahluko VII sigunyaza i-Quni i-gamential coms comsting traced train emelene nentando yombuso.

Amalungelo Abantu Nokungenela Komphakathi

Umbuso wamalungelo abantu wangemva kuka-1945 ngokulindelekile ubekela inselele ukubusa kwe-Westphalia. Uma uhulumeni ebulala abantu bawo, ingabe umphakathi wezizwe zonke unelungelo lokusebenza (noma ukungenela ?""Umthetho “ukungavikeleki” (R2P), owamukelwa yiUN ngo-2005, ugomela ukuthi uhulumeni uhilela umthwalo wemfanelo wokuvikela abantu enyameni enkulu. Uma umbuso uhluleka ukwenza kanjalo, isimiso, umphakathi wezizwe zonke ungathatha isinyathelo. Lemfundiso ihlala iphikisana kakhulu, njengoba ingasetshenziselwa ukuthethelela isenzo sezempi esilulaza ubukhosi (umz. NATO’s 1999 ekungeneleni kwabantu e-Koso).

Ukubusa Kwezizwe Zonke

Ayikho izinhlangano ezibonisa ukuguqulwa kobukhosi njenge-European Union. Amazwe angamalungu e-EU aye ahlanganisa ubukhosi ezindaweni eziyinhloko: amukela umthetho waseYurophu oza kuqala kunomthetho wezwe, athobele ukubuswa kweNkantolo yobulungisa yaseYurophu, futhi ahlanganyele enkambisweni yemali e-eurozone. Nakuba amalungu ezwe ekwazile ubukhosi obusemthethweni, ukuzibusa kwawo okusebenzayo kuye kwafaneleka kakhulu. I-Brexit arendendam yayimelene nokulahlekelwa okucatshangelwayo kobukhosi.

Ubukhosi Besibhakabhakeni

Njengoba imishini yokulawula iyanda, kuye kwavela umngcele omusha wobukhosi. Izwe elinjengeChina neRussia liye lathuthukisa izimfundiso “zobukhoma be-internet,” liphikisa ngokuthi ohulumeni banelungelo lokulawula indawo ye-adigita phakathi kwemingcele yabo. I-United States kanye nezizwe eziningi zaseNtshonalanga, ngokwehlukile, ziye zasekela i-internet ekhululekile nevulekile. Lokhu kucindezeleka kudlalwa ezimpikiswaneni zokulawula ukwaziswa kwendawo, ukulinganisela, nokungalinganiseli. Impikiswano yokuthi ubani onamandla aphelele kuyi-inthaneti ayikaphenduli.

Ubani Ophethe Amandla Obukhosi?

Impendulo ihluka kakhulu ezimisweni zezombangazwe. Ubukhosi abukho nje “kulapho”""""" ngaso sonke isikhathi bunikezwa umkhangisi othile noma iqoqo lezinhlangano.

Izimiso Zentando Yeningi

Kuyintando yeningi, ubukhosi bunikezwa abantu. Babusebenzisa ngokhetho lwezikhathi ezithile, abakhetha kulo abameleli. Umthetho-sisekelo uvame ukuhlukanisa futhi ubeke imingcele ukuze uvimbele ubushiqela. Nokho, ukusetshenziswa kwangempela kwamandla obukhosi kungumlamuleli: izikhulu ezikhethiwe, abahluleli, amabhubesi, futhi amaqembu enzalo wonke athonya izinqumo. Abantu bangabusa ngokusemthethweni, kodwa babusa kuphela ngokulandelana nangokungaqondile. Umthetho-mthetho-sisekelo waseBrithani u-A.V.Dicey waphikisa ngokuthi iPhalamende lingu elimiswe ngokomthetho, kodwa ubukhosi bezombangazwe bukhona, futhi ekugcineni bungawulahla uhulumeni.

Izinga Lombhali

Ezimisweni zempoqo, ubukhosi bugxile kumbusi oyedwa, umkhaya wobukhosi, noma iqembu eliphethe. Akukho kuhlola okunengqondo noma ukulandisa. Umbusi angagunyaza ngomlando, imibono, noma ubunkulunkulu. Izibonelo zihlanganisa i-North Korea, lapho umkhaya wa Kim usebenzisa khona amandla aphelele, neSaudi Arabia, lapho imibuso ibusa ngaphansi kokuhlanganiswa kwesizwe nenkolo. Kuleyomibuso, ubukhosi abuveli kubantu kodwa bungagunyazwa ngamandla futhi bugcinwe ngenkani. Umthetho uyithuluzi lenkosi, hhayi i-galelo.

Izimiso Zokuxhumana

Umbuso wombuso uwenza ube nzima ngokuhlukanisa ubukhosi phakathi kohulumeni besizwe nesifunda. E-United States, uMthetho-sisekelo udala ubukhosi obumbaxambili: uhulumeni wezwe uye wabala imibuso, kuyilapho amazwe eqhubeka ebusa. ISichibiyelo seshumi sigcinwa ezindaweni (noma abantu) yonke imibuso engaphathiswa uhulumeni kahulumeni. Amalungiselelo afanayo aseJalimane, eCanada, eNdiya nase-Australia. Ukulinganisela kwamandla phakathi kwamazinga kuxoxwa njalo ngezinkantolo nangezombangazwe, futhi ubukhosi buye bahlangane.

Amazwe Ahluleka Negunya Elivivinyiwe

Kwezinye izindawo, ubukhosi bukhona ephepheni kodwa abusebenzi. “umbuso ohlulekile” njenge-Somalia iminyaka eminingi wawungenawo uhulumeni osebenzayo. Umbuso wombuso wale ndawo wasetshenziswa abaholi besizwe, izinduna, futhi kamuva abaphathi bezifunda. Ezindaweni eziphikiswayo njengeMpumalanga Ukraine, iNagorno-Karabakh, noma iPalestina, abadlali abaningi baphakamisa ubukhosi, futhi ukuqashelwa komhlaba wonke kuyahlukana. Umbuzo othi “bani onamandla okuphelele?” awunikezi mpendulo.

Indima Yezinhlangano Zezizwe Zonke

Izinhlangano zomhlaba wonke ziye zaba izinkundla ezibaluleke kakhulu lapho ubukhosi busetshenziswa khona, bucindezelwa futhi buphinde bukhushulwa khona.

IZizwe Ezihlangene

IUN yakhiwe ngesimiso sokulingana ngokusemthethweni (Artle 2 (1) yeCharter), kodwa uMkhandlu wayo Wezokulondeka ungagunyaza izinyathelo zokubambisana − kuhlanganise nempi − ngokumelene nezindawo ezisongela ukuthula. Amalungu ahlala njalo e-Council (i-US, UK, i-Russia, i-China) ajabulela amandla, ilungelo elibonisa futhi elisonta ubukhosi. Imisebenzi yokugcina ukuthula ngokuvamile isebenza ngemvume yamazwe aphethe, kodwa futhi imisa ukubusa kwasekhaya ezindaweni ezinjenge-Provial, uvota, namalungelo abantu. Izindikimba zesivumelwano zeUN, njengeKomiti yamaLungelo obuntu, iqondisa izibopho zomhlaba wonke, inikeza ukubunga okuphumelelayo ukubukeza.

I - European Union

Njengoba kuphawuliwe, iEU iwumzamo othatha indawo yonke wokuhlanganisa ubukhosi. Izifunda ziye zadlulisela igunya ezindaweni ezisukela ekuncintisaneni kuya ekuqondiseni indawo ezungezile. I-European Commission imisa umthetho, i-Court of Justice iqinisekisa ukuchazwa okufanayo. I-Nationalvetoes iye yathathelwa indawo izindawo eziningi ngokuvota okuningi okufanelekayo. Umphumela yisimiso esiyinkimbinkimbi sokubusa kweminingi endaweni lapho ubukhosi bungasayikuba khona phakathi kwesikhungo esisodwa. Ukuze ulwe nalokhu, bona incazelo ye-Puciolentian [[FLD:0] ye-EUPU]

Izikhungo Zezezimali Zamazwe Ngamazwe

I-International Monetary Fund ne World Bank inethonya elikhulu ekubolekeni izifundazwe ezinemibandela. Ngeziboleka, zidinga ukulungiswa kokwakha, izinguquko zezezimo, nezinguquko zokulawula. Nakuba imibuso ivumelana ngokusemthethweni nalezi zimo, ubukhosi bayo buncishiswa ngokuphumelelayo (ikakhulukazi emazweni asathuthuka anezindlela ezilinganiselwe zokuhlola izimiso zezomnotho, ngesikhathi esifanayo, zonke izifunda ezingamalungu zifuna ukubukezwa ontanga ngezikhathi ezithile.

Izinhlangano Zesifunda

I-African Union, i-Organization of America, i-ASEAN, nezinye izindikimba zendawo nazo zingagunyaza ukungenela (isibonelo, imisebenzi yase-AU eSomalia, izenzo ze-OAS eHaiti) futhi zithuthukise izindinganiso ezinjengokubusa kwentando yeningi noma amalungelo abantu. Lezinhlangano zimelela indawo ephakathi kobukhosi bezwe negunya lesizwe.

Izimpikiswano Zesikhathi Esizayo Ngobukhosi

Incazelo yobukhosi isaphikiswa ezimweni eziningana ezicindezelayo.

Ukubusa Nendawo Ezungezile

Ukushintsha kwesimo sezulu akuyihloniphi imingcele. Ukukhishwa kwegesi kahulumeni kuthinta yonke iplanethi; ukungcola kwayo kunqamule imingcele. Izivumelwano ezifana ne-Paris Account zidinga ukuba kumiswe futhi kuvinjwe izisulu zokukhishwa kwegesi, kodwa ukugcinwa kwemithetho kubuthakathaka. Umqondo “wokubusa okungokwesayensi” ubuza ukuthi amazwe anelungelo elingakholeki yini lokusebenzisa ingcebo yawo, noma ukuthi ayathemba abantu. Isimiso “othile kodwa abahlukene nomthwalo wemfanelo” siyaqaphela ukuthi wonke akhona abaphathi bezwe kodwa achumayo anesibopho esikhulu kakhulu emlandweni.

Ukubusa Kwamanani

Ohulumeni baya bagcizelela ukuthi balawula indawo yabo ye-odigital. “UMbhoshongo Omkhulu” weChina uvala amawebhusayithi angaphandle; i-General Tech Tealotion Regation (GDPR) imisa imithetho kunoma yimuphi umnyango wenkampani ophatha ukwaziswa kwe-EU, ngisho noma inkampani isekelwe kwamanye amazwe. I-United States iye yaqhubezela ukuqhubekeka “kolwazi ngokukhululekile ngethemba” ukuze ilondoloze imisebenzi yezobuchwepheshe bayo. Umbuso wezesayensi uthinta ukuqapha, ukuzifihla, nokuncintisana kweze-gesi. Oye wagcina amandla phezu kwemininingwane ye-EU iqhubeka iwumbuzo ongaphenduleki.

Ukubusa Kwendawo

IOuter Space Treaty (1967) imemezela ukuthi indawo ayingaphansi kokuhlelwa kwezwe, kodwa i-overgator ilawula izinto ezizihlelayo. Njengoba umsebenzi wezentengiselwano nempahla yezempi zinwetshwa ngokuzungeza, kuphakama imibuzo ngobukhosi ezindaweni ezingaphandle komhlaba. Ingaba isizwe singaba nesisekelo senyanga njengendawo elawulayo? Kufanele kuxazululwe kanjani ngezikhala ezizungezayo noma ngemfucumfucu yomkhathi?

Isiphetho

Ubukhosi busalokhu buyinkolelo eyisisekelo yenhlangano yanamuhla yezombangazwe. Iye yasuka embusweni wemibuso ephelele kuya ekwamukeleni okuthandwayo, kusukela e-Westphalian uzimele kuya ekubambisanani. Nakuba umbuso usanesikhundla esihloniphekile njengesiqu esiyinhloko segunya, amandla awo alokhu enziwa izingcindezi zangaphakathi ($democratation, ingxabano, ingxabano yombango, ukulwa kwemiphakathi, ukubuswa kwemibuso yangaphandle (8), ukuncintiswa kwemithetho yomhlaba wonke, ukuncintiswa kwezizwe, kanye nokusetshenziswa kwezimiso zobuchwepheshe. Umbuzo “Ubani onamandla okuyinhloko?” awunayo impendulo ehlala ikhona, futhi uhlale udinga ukuncintisana. Abafundi bezombangazwe, ukuqonda ubukhosi basho ukuqondana nje kuphela lapho igunya likhona, kodwa indlela yokuncintisana nokushintsha. Njengoba izwe likhula, ukuphikisana phakathi kwemibuso yembulunga nemibuso yezombangazwe.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, bheka Encyclopedia of Philosophy ukungenisa ebukhosini kanye Enclopædia Britannica [.