Table of Contents
ISiko Lesikole Esizimele LoMthetho - sisekelo
UMthetho-sisekelo we-United States uye wasebenza kokubili njengendawo yempi nesivikelo esibonisa ijubane ekulweni isikhathi eside ukususa izikole zaseMelika. Kusukela ekuhlolweni kweziNkantolo ezihlangeneyo ukuya ezinqumweni zeNkantolo ePhakeme, uMthetho-sisekelo uye wanikeza uhlelo olungokomthetho lokuhlukanisa izinhlanga ezingenisweni. Nakuba uhambo olusuka Preveby v. Ferguson [kuyi-'u-'u-'u-'umthetho] kuya ku-Brown v. i-Brown. i-Brown-v. i-K yemfundo yezemfundo futhi iye yaba ngaphezu kwesohlangothini, uMthetho-sisekelo uhlala ugcuphe oluyi-mfandela phezu kwesithembiso semfundo ehleli phezu kwethuba elilinganayo. Lesi sihloko sihlola umlando womlando wesikole, isihluthulelo se-andexterne, insetmentssss, inset Milan yenkantolo, insetststststststst
Izinqumo Zokwakha Nesithembiso Sokulingana
Indaba yomthetho-sisekelo yokususa isikole ekuhlanganeni iqala hhayi ngawo-1950, kodwa eminyakeni elandela iMpi Yombango. ISichibiyelo seshumi elinesithathu (1865) saqeda ubugqila, iSichibiyelo seshumi nane (1868) samisa ubuzibulo futhi saqinisekisa isivikelo esifanayo ngaphansi komthetho, neSiphendulo seshumi elinesihlanu senqabela ubandlululo lobuhlanga ekuvoteni. Lokhu kulungisa okuthathu kwakuhloselwe ukusungula uhlelo olusha lomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo lapho uhlanga lungeke luphinde lunqume amalungelo omuntu.
I-Umeal Protection Claus yeSichibiyelo seshumi nane sibaluleke kakhulu emzamweni wokuhlukanisa. Ifundeka kanje: "Awukho umbuso... ozophika noma yimuphi umuntu onegunya lakhe isivikelo esifanayo semithetho." Lolulimi olubonakala lucacile lungaba yindaba yempikiswano eqinile engokomthetho cishe iminyaka eyikhulu. Umbhalo awuyishonga ngokucacile imfundo, kodwa isiqinisekiso sayo esibanzi sokulingana ngaphansi komthetho sinikeza ithuluzi elinamandla labamelelidindayo abaphikisayo ukuthi izikole ezihlukene azisoze zalingana ngempela.
Imfundiso ka-"Separenti kodwa Ilingana": Plessy v. Ferguson
Naphezu kwesithembiso seZichibiyelo zokwamukelwa kabusha, isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme ngo 1896 [ku- Pnety v. Ferguson sabhekana nenhlekelele ebhubhisayo emzamweni wokulingana kwezinhlanga. Ngaleyondlela, iNkantolo yasekela umthetho weLouisiana ofuna ukuba abantu bahlukane ngezimoto zesitimela, imisa imfundiso ethi "Izingalingani kodwa iyalingana"" INkanto engathi i-Gandementation yayihloselwe ukuqinisa ukulingana okungokomthetho, hhayi ukuqeda ukuhlukanisa kwezenhlalo okusekelwe ohlalweni.
UMahluleli uJohn Marshall Harlan, umphikisi oyedwa [ku-], wabhala ngokudumile: "Umthetho - sisekelo wethu uyisimpumputhe yemibala, futhi akazi futhi akakwazi ukubekezelela izigaba phakathi kwezakhamuzi zawo" umbono kaHarlan ngeke ube umthetho wezwe iminyaka engamashumi ayisithupha, kodwa ukuphikisa kwakhe kwanikeza impikiswano engokomthetho-mthetho yokuthi abameli bamalungelo abantu basebenzisa kamuva ukubekela inselele imvume. Engxenyeni yokuqala yekhulu lama-20, i-"Rephalitiki kodwa" imfundiso elinganayo yayingeke ilawule izimoto kuphela kodwa nezikole zomphakathi, ikakhulukazi eGimer Crow South.
Inganekwane Yokulingana Ezikoleni Ezihlukene
Eqenjini, izikole ezihlukene zezingane zabansundu cishe zazingalingani neze neze nezisezikoleni ezimhlophe. Izifunda zaseNingizimu ezihlelwe ngokulandelana ezikoleni zabamhlophe, zinikeza imithombo ephansi, amaholo othisha, izakhiwo ezibhidlikile, nezincwadi eziphelelwe isikhathi. Ngawo-1930, i-National Association for the Advanced of Colored People (NAACP) yaqala icebo elingokomthetho eliwubugqila lokudalula ukulingana nemfundo ehleliwe. Kunokuba ibeke inselele ngokuqondile [[FLT: 0] Plessyy, i-NACP yaqala ukuphikisa ukuthi ihluleka ngempela ukunikeza abafundi abaNsundu izindawo ezilinganayo, ngaleyondlela iphula i-ACP engcono - protectionedcial protection.
Umkhankaso KaNaACP Wasemthethweni Nomgwaqo WaseBrown
Umkhankaso we-NAACP' ongokomthetho, oholwa nguCharles Hamilton Houston futhi kamuva uThur Good Marshall, wahamba ngendlela ehambelana nezinkantolo. Ezimweni ezinjenge Missouri ex rel. I-Fuines v. Canada [[38] [[FLT:]), [FLT] SUWEUS] . Ibhodi yaseRegets of University of Oklahoma[FLT] [[FLT] [198] [198], [[FLT] i-Sweatt v. [[FLT] [FLT] [1950], i-NACP] yafaka insell enhloniver ezikoleni naseqenjini. Lezimonyolo eziphambili, futhi ezingenakulinganiswa nezimiso ezingomeni ezingochwepheshe.
Ekuqaleni kwawo-1950, i-NAACP yayikulungele ukubekela inselele ukuhlukaniswa komthetho-mthetho ngokwako. Lenhlangano yafaka icala ezifundeni eziningana, iphikisa ngokuthi izikole ezihlukene zazingalingani, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi imithombo engokoqobo iyalingana yini. Lamacala afakwa eBown v. Ibhodi yemfundo yaseTopaka, ivumelana nokuyizwa yiNkantolo Ephakeme.
Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo: I-Constitutional Watersed
NgoMay 17, 1954, iNkantolo Ephakeme yakhipha isinqumo sayo esivumelanayo [FLT][FLT]bn v. Ibhodi yemfundo[FLT]. ISikhulu seJaji u-Earl Warren, ibhalela iNkantolo, yamemezela ukuthi "izakhiwo zemfundo ezihlukene azilingani ngokwemvelo" futhi ukuthi izingane zabamnyama zincishiswe isivikelo esilinganayo ngaphansi komthetho. INkantolo inci ithembele kakhulu ebufakazini bezesayensi yezenhlalo, kuhlanganise nezifundo ezidumile zezazi zengqondo uKenneth noMamie Clark, ezabonisa ukulimala kwengqondo okubangelwa yi-Flons.
Isinqumo sahlehla sathiya i-Pnety v. Ferguson emongweni wemfundo yomphakathi. INkantolo yathi ukuhlukaniswa ezikoleni zomphakathi kwakuphula iSivikelo sika Claus eSigqizibeni seMthethweni weshumi nane neSimemezelo somthetho nenkulumo yokuziphatha. Njengoba uWarren abhala: "Siphetha ngokuthi emkhakheni wemfundo yomphakathi imfundiso ye-'v'eyedwa kodwa ingenandawo."
Brown II: "Ngesivinini Esiphelele"
Ngonyaka olandelayo, eNkantolo yakhuluma ngempikiswano yokusetshenziswa kwemisebenzi. Kunokuba iyale ukuba kuthathwe i-Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (ngokuvamile ibizwa ] Brown II [[), iNkantolo yakhuluma ngempikiswano yokusetshenziswa kwayo. Kunokuba ikhiphe ukuhlelwa kwemithetho ngokushesha, iNkantolo yayala izinkantolo eziphansi ukuba zifune ukukhishwa kwemvume yokuhlela i-'inquisini ngesivinini samabomu. Lolulimi oludidayo lwaluhloselwe ukunikeza iziphakaniso zesikhathi saseNingizimu. Nokho, lwavumela abahoxa benza ukuvumelana iminyaka eminingi, uma kungenjalo amashumi eminyaka.
Izifundazwe zaseNingizimu zasabela ngalokho okwabizwa ngokuthi "Izinsolo." Ezinye izigodlo zamisa imithetho evala izikole zomphakathi kunokuba zizibalule. Ezinye zasungula izinhlelo zokunikeza izinhlelo zokusekela izikole zangasese, ezihlukene. Isithembiso somthetho-sisekelo se Brown kungadingeka ukuba kufakwe ezinye izimpi ezingokomthetho ukuze kuqinisekiswe.
Ukukhipha Isibopho: Izinqumo Eziyinhloko Zenkantolo Ephakeme
Emashumini eminyaka alandela Brown, iNkantolo Ephakeme yakhipha uchungechunge lwezinqumo ezacacisa isibopho somthetho-mthetho sokususa izikole. Lezi zimemezelo zandisa ukufinyelela kwe-Exctal Protection Clause futhi zanika izinkantolo zikahulumeni igunya lokusebenzisa amaqhinga okuhlanganisa.
Cooper v. Aaron (1958)
Ngemva kwenhlekelele eCentral High School eLittle Rock, Arkansas, lapho uMbusi u-Orval Faubus asebenzisa khona u-National Guard ukuze avimbele abafundi abaNsundu ukuba bangangeni esikoleni, iNkantolo Ephakeme yanikeza ukuvunywa okunamandla kwegunya likahulumeni. Cooper v. U-Aaron, iNkantolo yavumelana ngokuthi izikhulu zezwe azinakuvala iziyalezo zenkantolo zikahulumeni. Isinqumo saqinisekisa ukuthi uMthetho-Constitution ungumthetho ophakeme wezwe futhi ukuthi ukumelana nombuso wokungancintiswa kwe-dese-cliqualion kwakuwumthetho.
I - Green v. County School Board (1968)
Ku Luhlaza v. iBoard yaseSifundeni se-New Kent , iNkantolo Ephakeme yenqaba "inkululeko yokuzikhethela" uhlelo oluhlulekile ukuveza ukuhlukanisa okunenjongo. INkantolo yaphetha ukuthi amabhodi ezikole ayenesibopho sokuqeda zonke izinsalela ze-live production "mpande negatsha"" lesi sinqumo saphawula ukushintshwa kokwenqabela nje ukuhlanganiswa kwenkululeko nokufuna ukuhlanganiswa.
USwandan v.Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education (1971)
Millaven v. Bradley (1974)
Ngokungafani nesinqumo esikhulu sangonyaka ka-1970 nasekuqaleni konyaka ka-1970, isinqumo sifake imingcele ephawulekayo emabhukwini ezindawo ezihlala abambalwa. INkantolo yanquma ukuthi amapulani okuhlukanisa angeke afune izikole zasemadolobheni ukuba zihlanganyele ngaphandle kokuba lezozifundakazi zaziye zakhetha ngenhloso. Lesi sinqumo sakhulula izifunda eziningi ezimhlophe ezisuka eziyalweni ze-desevolution, sishiya izifundazwe ezinabafundi abambalwa kakhulu. [FLT][3][FLT:][4][5][FLT][FLT] .[FLT][5][5][FLT][5][5][FLT][5][5][5]
Izinselele Zomthetho - sisekelo Nezokuhlukanisa
Naphezu kokunqoba komthetho ngokomthetho wenkathi yamalungelo abantu, izikole eziningi zaseMelika namuhla zihlala zihlukanisiwe kakhulu. Umbiko ka-2022 ovela eHulumeni i-Hulumeni Accounting Office wathola ukuthi abafundi abangaphezu kwengxenye yesithathu baya ezikoleni lapho amaphesenti angaphezu kuka-75 endikimba yabafundi engowohlanga olulodwa noma ubuzwe. Lokhu kuhlanganiswa kuqhutshwa yinhlanganisela yezici: ukuba khona kwabantu, ukuguquguquka kwenani, ukuhlelwa kwemithetho yenkantolo e-authorication, kanye nokungaqiniseki okukhulayo kweNkantolo Ephakeme ukuba bacabangele uhlanga esikoleni.
Abazali Abahileleke Ezikoleni Zomphakathi Ngakolunye ISeattle (2007)
Isinqumo sika-2007 Abazali abahilelekile ezikoleni zomphakathi v. Seattle School District No. 1 sayixaka ngokwengeziwe indawo yomthetho-sisekelo. INkantolo yaqeda amasu esikole okuzithandela ayesebenzisa izinhlanga njengesici esibangela ukufinyelela izinhlobonhlobo, ngoba amacebo anjalo ayephula iSivikelo Somphakathi u-Claus. UMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Roberts wabhala ukuthi "indlela yokunqanda ukucwaswa kohlanga iwukuyeka ukugxeka ngesisekelo sohlanga" lesi sinqumo salinganisela ikhono lezifunda zesikole lokuthatha izinyathelo zokuthuthukisa ukuhlangana.
Ukuphela Kwenhlangano Yenkantolo
Kusukela ngawo-1990, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zaqala ukumemezela izifunda "zobunye," okusho ukuthi zazisuse zonke izinsalela zokwahlukana ngokwezinga ezivunyelwe. Lapho isifunda sesikhishiwe, ukuqondisa kwenkantolo kwaphela. Amakhulu ezikole kulo lonke izwe akhululwa ezimisweni zobuhlanga, futhi amaningi abona ukubuyela ezindleleni zokubhalisa ezingaphezulu. Umthetho wesisekelo owawugunyaze ukuba kuthathwe isigaba esisebenzayo sathathelwa indawo yisici esincane kakhulu sokubheka ukucwaswa ngenhloso.
Ukuphikisa Komthetho - sisekelo Ngenxa Yemizamo Yanamuhla Yokuvimbela
Naphezu kwalezizithiyo, uMthetho-sisekelo uyaqhubeka unikeza izizathu ezingokomthetho zokuhlanganisa. Abameleli baphikisa ngokuthi i-Uncime Protection Claus ayinqabeli ukucabangela lonke uhlanga, kodwa ubandlululo olunobuwula kuphela. Bakhomba enkathazweni kahulumeni eshukumisayo ekwahlukahlukahluka, eqashelwa kuqala yiNkantolo ephakeme ezicaleni zemfundo ephakeme njenge gertebb v. Bollinger [2003]. Izifunda zesikole ziye zasungula izinhloso zokuhlanganisa ezisekelwe esimweni sezentengiselwano, ezingafinyelela ukwahlukahlukana kwezinhlanga ngaphandle kokubangela ukuhlolwa okuqinile ngaphansi kwe-Active Protection Claus Claus.
Ngaphezu kwalokho, isiqinisekiso soMthetho-sisekelo sokuvikela okulinganayo sisekela izimpikiswano ezithi kumelwe zikhulume ngokuhlukaniswa okubangelwa yizimiso zokuhlukanisa izindlu ezingokobuhlanga. Ukucwaninga kuye kwabonisa ukuthi ukuhlukaniswa kwesikole kuhlobene kakhulu nokuhlukaniswa kwabantu, okuye kwalo ngokwako kwalo okuye kwamiswa amashumi eminyaka ezimiso zikahulumeni njengokubuyisela nokuhlukanisa. Ezinye izazi ezingokomthetho ziphikisa ngokuthi uMthetho-sisekelo ufuna ukuba kulungiswe lezindlela zokuhlukanisa, ngisho noma zingabangelwanga ngokuqondile yizikhungo zesikole.
Indima Yomthetho - sisekelo KaHulumeni
Nakuba uMthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni unikeza isisekelo sokuvikela okulinganayo, imithetho-mthetho kahulumeni iye yenza indima ebaluleke kakhulu ekulweni isikole esihlukanisiwe. Umthetho-mthetho kahulumeni uhlanganisa iziqinisekiso ezicacile zezinga lemfundo noma ukuphelela okudlula indinganiso kahulumeni. Ezimweni ezinjenge Abott v. Burke eNew Jersey ne SSRANE v. [ umpristi eCalifornia, izinkantolo zezwe ziye zathembela emalungiselelweni omthetho wezwe ukuze kuhlelwe ukulingana ukuxhasa isikole nempahla.
Ukuhlanganiswa komthetho-mthetho kahulumeni kahulumeni nombuso kudala isimo somthetho-mthetho esiyinkimbinkimbi. Kwezinye izifundazwe, abakhohlisi baye basebenzisa ngokuphumelelayo imithetho-mthetho kahulumeni ukubekela inselele ukuhluka kwezimali ezithinta ngokungenakulinganiswa abafundi bemibala. Lezi zimo zibonisa ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo, ngomqondo wawo obanzi kakhulu, ulokhu kuyincwadi ephilayo ekwaziyo ukuzivumelanisa nokuqonda okusha kokulingana nobulungisa.
Izimpikiswano Eziqhubekayo: Ukukholelwa Kunkulunkulu Kwakuqala, Umthetho - sisekelo Ophilayo, Nekusasa Lobandlululo
Impikiswano engokomthetho-mthetho ngokuphathelene nesigaba sesikole ibonisa ukungavumelani okukhulu mayelana nendlela uMthetho-sisekelo okufanele uchazwe ngayo. Abaqondisi bokuqala baphikisa ngokuthi incazelo yoMthetho-sisekelo yayimiswe ngesikhathi sokuqiniswa nokuthi i-Livice Elinganayo u-Claus yayingahloselwe ukunqanda ukuhlukaniswa. Izazi zomthetho-sisekelo eziphilayo ziphikisa ukuthi izimiso ezibanzi zoMthetho-sisekelo kumelwe ziguquke ukuze zihlangabezane nezimo ezishintshayo zezenhlalo nokuthi Brown ngokwazo zaziyi-imfakthako yakuqala.
Lezimpikiswano ezichazayo zinemiphumela ewusizo. Iningi lamanje leNkantolo ebambelele kakhulu empilweni libonise ukungaqiniseki ngezimiso zezinhlanga futhi liye lanciphisa izinga lamandla omthetho omthetho emfundweni. Okwamanje, amanye amazwe aye athatha isinyathelo sokuzibusa, amisa imithetho ekhuthaza ukuhlanganiswa kwezinhlanga noma, kwezinye izimo, ivimbela imfundiso yomlando wobuhlanga. Ikusasa lesikole elincitshisiwe lihlala lingaqinisekile, kodwa umbhalo nomlando woMthetho-sisekelo kuyaqhubeka ukunikeza kokubili igunya nesikhuthazo kulabo abafuna ukulingana.
Isiphetho: Isithembiso esihlala njalo somthetho-sisekelo
UMthetho-sisekelo we-United States uye waba ithuluzi eliyinhloko elingokomthetho emzabalazweni wokususa izikole zaseMelika. Kusukela ekuvuselweni kabusha kweziNguqulo kuya Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo[ nangaphezulu, uMthetho-sisekelo uye wagunyaza ukulwela ukulingana kwezinhlanga emthethweni wesizwe oyisisekelo. Nokho indaba ayiphelele. Isikole siyaqhubeka, futhi imibuzo emisha engokomthetho nengokomthetho iyaqhubeka iphakama.
Indima yoMthetho-sisekelo ekuhlukaniseni akuyona nje engokomlando. Isalokhu iyisici esiphilayo phakathi kwaso abameleli, othisha, nabakhi bezimiso okumelwe basebenze. I-Umeal Protection Claus, i-Supremacy Claus, nezimiso zokwakha ze-uthonist konke kuhlela amathuba okuhlangana. Njengoba isizwe siqhubeka siphikisana ngendlela yokugcwalisa isithembiso [ Brown, uMthetho-sisekelo uzakuhlala phakathi kwengxoxo.
Uhambo olusukela "kuhlukene kodwa lulingana" kuya "kuyo yonke ijubane lamabomu" kuze kube namuhla lubonisa ukuthi ushintsho lomthetho-sisekelo luyathatha, luyaphikiswa, futhi aluqiniseki. Kodwa uMthetho-sisekelo uye wazibonakalisa uyakwazi ukukhula nokuchazwa kabusha. Kuhlala, ngokweMithetho yeJaji iHarlan, i-computer encame ekufuneni kwawo uma kungenjalo ekusebenzeni kwawo. Umsebenzi wokususa i-comparation uwumsebenzi wokwenza lezo zifiso zibe ngokoqobo.