Ukuqonda Isisekelo Sokungavumelani Okukhethekile

Imfundiso yokukhetha isebenza njengenye yezinqubo ezibaluleke kakhulu zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo eMelika. Iphendula umbuzo obalulekile: yimaphi amalungiselelo eSipho samalungelo avimbela ohulumeni, hhayi uhulumeni kahulumeni wezwe? Ngaphambi kweSiphendu seshumi nane lesithathu, iSiphendu samalungelo esetshenziswa kuphela kuhulumeni kahulumeni kahulumeni, njengoba kuqinisekiswe Barron v. Baltimore [1833]. I-ayisendice's’s Procestions of Reliclace Claus, yagunyaza ngo-1868, yakha indlela engokomthetho yokudlulisela lezi sivikelo kuhulumeni kuphela. Nokho, iNkanto ephakeme ayizange yamukele ngokushesha i-mento eyaziwa njenge-sethiomeactive.

Lendlela iye yalolongwa ukuhlukana kwemibono okujulile phakathi kokwahlulela. Lenqubo ayikona ukuthatha inhloso; idinga ukuchaza inkulumo yeSichibiyelo se 144 ethi “nanoma yimuphi uMbuso ngeke unciphe noma yimuphi umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho” ukunquma ukuthi yimaphi amalungelo“ asekelwe kakhulu eqhingani lokwahlulela lase-Melika.” Leso sinqumo sixhomeke kakhulu kuyifilosofi yokwahlulela. Umphumela uyindinyana yamalungelo afakiwe ngokugcwele, amanye asetshenziswa ngokwengxenye kuphela, futhi ambalwa asashiyelwe ekunqumeni.

Indlela Ifilosofi Yokwahlulela Elawula Ngayo Izinqumo Zokuthethelelwa

Ifilosofi yokwahlulela inikeza ilens lapho amajaji efunda khona umbhalo womthetho-sisekelo ongaqondakaliyo. ENkantolo Ephakeme, ukungavumelani ngokukhetha ngokuvamile kunciphisa imibono encintisanayo ngokuphathelene nesimo senkululeko, indima yomlando, kanye nobuhlobo obufanele phakathi kwamandla kahulumeni nombuso. Amahlelo amathathu amakhulu efilosofi ahlale ethonya lezi zinqumo: [[[FLT]] uqualist [[FLT:]], [FLT:]], ] umbhalo [[FLT]], [[FLT]], [[FLT]], kubonakala sengathi kuhlebe ukuhlebelana kwemithetho elawulayo.

Ukuqamba Amanga Nemingcele Yokungavumelani

Abaqondisi bezokuqala baphikisa ngokuthi uMthetho-sisekelo kufanele uchazwe ngokwencazelo yawo yokuqala yomphakathi. .Lona umuntu onengqondo ngesikhathi sokuhlungwa ubengaqonda ukuthi umbhalo usho ukuthini. Abaqondisi benkathi yokukhetha bathambekele ekungaqinisekini amalungelo akhuliswe yilezo ezazihloswe abahleli beSimemezelo se-145. AmaJaji anjengomuntu ongasekho u-Antonin Scalia no-Clarence Thomas ayewuqonda njalo lombono. Babuza: Ingabe abashicini beSiphendulo se-14th beSichibiyelo sihlose ukuthatha wonke umqulu wamalungelo? . Njengomphumela, imibono yokuqala imelana njalo nelungelo elingenayo isisekelo esicacile somlando. Ngokwesibonelo, uMahluleli uThomas uveza ukuthi i-Esibili isebenza ku-Exmagedmentodron noma ku-Claus - procen (e) ehlelwe ngokuphikisana nezimiso ezingokomthetho ezihlukene.

Lefilosofi futhi idala ukucindezeleka. Nakuba ubuQaphela bungalinganisela ukuhlanganiswa, bungafuna futhi ukuhlanganiswa uma ubufakazi obungokomlando bubonisa abakhi be-flames behloselwe ilungelo elithile lokusebenzisa ngokumelene nezifundazwe. [Ku McDonald v. Chicago [2010], uMahluleli Thomas uvumelana neningi ukuthi iSichibiyelo sesibili sisebenza ezindaweni, kodwa uthembele ekwakheni amalungelo noma enqubeni ye-Immunion Clausle, hhayi enqubweni efanelekile, ngoba wayekholelwa ukuthi umbiko wokuqala ohlanganisa amalungelo ayisisekelo.

Ukubhala Nokufuna Incazelo Ecacile

I-Textalism, ehlobene kakhulu nobuQuqu, igcizelela umbhalo ocacile woMthetho-sisekelo njengomthombo oyinhloko wokuchaza. Ubulungisa obuchaza amagama buzohlola amagama e-Century Procession Claus futhi bubuze ukuthi isiqeshana ngokwaso siqukethe luphi ulimi ngokuphathelene namalungelo athile yini. Ngoba u-mbhalo awudwebi iBill of Rights, abaxhasi bemibhalo bavame ukuphetha ngokuthi umbhalo wodwa awugunyazi ukuhlanganiswa okugcwele. Nokho, bangasamukela ukuhlanganiswa uma kulandelana, Gitlow v. New York[[FLT:] [25] [12] [12])] noma [FLT] umzamo omkhulu [FLT].[iceon [v2]. Winright [FLC] [FF] [FLT] [3] [6] [6], usungule umthetho oqinile.[ignelgnist, u-kagniongnel, kuyilapho u-kahluhlul, u-kahlu oluqinile, u-kanele kakhulu.

Izazi zokubhala zithanda futhi ukufunda okuncane, cishe okuthi amalungelo “asekelwe kungqondo.” Zigwema ukuhlola okubanzi okungokwengqondo noma kwezenhlalo njengokuthi “unembeza” kuyisici esiwumthetho, kunalokho zithanda ukuzimisela okungokomlando ukuthi ilungelo ligxile kakhulu emasikweni esizwe. Lendlela iveza ukusabela ngokuqapha ezinqumweni ezihlanganisayo.

UMthetho - sisekelo Ophilayo Nokuhlobanisa Okukhulu

Abasekeli boMthetho-sisekelo ophilayo babheka lencwadi njengesakhi esinamandla okumelwe sivumelane nezindinganiso zomphakathi. Lefilosofi ikhuthaza abahluleli ukuba bachaze i-Unit Procession Clause njengendlela yokuvikela imiqondo evelayo yenkululeko. Amajaji anjengoWilliam Brennan, Thurvice Marshall, Stephen Breyer, noRuth Bader Ginsburg awuchaza kahle lombono. Ezimweni ezikhethayo, lokhu ngokuvamile kusho ukuphikisana ngokuhlanganisa ngokugcwele zonke izivikelo zenkululeko yamaLungelo.

Indaba ephawulayo .Rade v [1973] ibeka isibonelo soMthetho-sisekelo ophilayo, nakuba yayingahileli ukufakwa ngokukhetha i-profile ekhethekile. Ngokuqondile, i-Timbs v. Indiana [2011] [2011], iNkantolo ehlangene isekela ukuthi iSimemezelo seSiphekezelo Esingu-8 sisebenza ngokulandelana ezifundazweni. IJaji uRuth Bader Ginsburg’s ngombono weNkantolo ayithembelanga ekucabangeni kokuqala kodwa emfundisweni ukuthi ukuhle ngokweqile kungokomthetho we-engile (2011). I-Constitution isekela futhi amalungelo emishaye-mstion ehlangene ne-yomkhaya, futhi isekela amalungelo engcono enziwayo ngaphansi kwe-injini enziwayo yecala, futhi i-Bill.

Ukulinganisela I - pragmat kanye Nokulinganisela Kwecala Ngecala

Abanye abahluleli bathatha indlela esebenzayo yokusebenza, becabangela imiphumela esebenzayo yokuhlanganisa nokushiya indaba ezindaweni. IJaji uLewis Powell noJaji Sandra Day O’Connor bayihlanganisa nalendlela. [ Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transtit Authority [[[FLL:1]] [1985], iNkantolo yashiya indlela yokuhlela ubukhosi futhi yamukela isivivinyo esisebenzayo. [eqekelweni esikhethekile:] i-Pragogmatis ibuza: Izothuthukisa lokhu kuphatha okulungile kobulungisa? Izoveza izisekelo zezinga ezingafanele? Idinga ukukhokha okukhulu kangakanani phakathi kwesizwe? Lokhu kuvame ukukhomba ngendlela elinganiselwe eqondeni ekwanele kodwa ehambisana nezimo zemfanelo. [VFraclate] [2] [4], [4]

Amacala Awuphawu Ambula Ifilosofi Yokwahlulela Asebenza

Ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kokuhlanganyela ngokukhetha kungalandelelwa ngochungechunge lwezinqumo lapho amafilosofi ancintisanayo ayephikisana khona. Lezi zimo zibonisa indlela umbono wobulungisa womhlaba othinta ngayo ngokuqondile ukuthi ilungelo liyisizwe yini.

Gitlow v. New York (1925) – Isinyathelo sokuqala

.Gitlow, iNkantolo yacabanga ukuthi isimemezelo sokukhuluma sokuqala esikhululekile safakwa ngeSichibiyelo seshumi nane, kodwa yasekela ukuqiniseka ngoba inkulumo ebuzwayo yayingavikelwanga. Lokhu kwakuqala kwakuvikelwa. Umbono wabaningi, owabhalwa nguMahluleli Edward Santford, awuzange ungene ekucabangeni okujulile kwefilosofi; wawumane nje uthathelwe ukuba khona. UMahluleli u-Ourfellah Holmes waphikisa, uveza ukuthi umthetho wezwe wahluleka ukwenza “ingozi neyamanje.” Ifilosofi yefilosofi ye-Holmeagragdate futhi esobala yemikhakhanka yemi eqinile ekuvikeleni inkulumo yesizwe. Imibono yesizwe isho ukuthi ihluleka kanjani ukuveza izimpawu zempi yefilosofi.

Mapp v.Oo (1961) – Ukuhlanganisa koMthetho we-Exclussion

yahlanganisa isivikelo seSichibiyelo sesine sokuhlola okungacabangeli nokuquleka kanye nokubusa kwaso okuhambisana nokususa imibuso. UMahluleli uTom C. Clark umbono weningi wawuncike esimisweni sokunqanda nokudinga ikhambi elifanayo. Isinqumo sasiyisivikelo esicacile sokufinyelela eMthethweni weSivumelwano esiphilayo: iNkantolo yandisa ilungelo elalingasetshenziswanga ngaphambili ekuchazeni, icabanga ukuthi ubuqotho besimiso sobulungisa babufuna ukuba lihambe phambili. IJaji uJohn Marshall Harlan II noFelicerder yaphikisa, iveza ukuthi umthetho owe-mthethwe ngokwezikhundla wawungelo oluqondile kodwa oludalwe ngendlela engathi kungaphoqeqelelwe ezizweni.Ifilosofi yabo.5] nenhlonipho ye-soshane ye-messation.

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) – Ilungelo lokweluleka

Iphakamisa icala elidlule ( Brady v. Brady), iNkantolo ku Gideon[ yakholelwa ukuthi isibuyekezo seSisithupha sesinqumo siyisisekelo futhi sisebenza ezizweni. Umbono kaJustice Hugo Black weNkanto ehlangeneyo usebenzisa “uvivinyo olusekelwe embangweni”. Umbhula wayengumlandeli okholelwa ukuthi iBill yelungelo lonke. Umbono wakhe ubonisa ukuthi ifilosofi: wanqaba umqondo ongathi ungazama ngezindinganiso ezihlukene zokunikeza iseluleko. Indaba ivame ukukhonjwa njengesibonelo semfundiso yobulungisa (umbono ophelele) (umphumela).

[[IQUTY:0] Duncan v. Louisiana (1968) – Jury Trial Trials

Duncan wafaka ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala lokwahlulela emacaleni angathi sína. IJaji Byron White yagcizelela ukuthi ukuqulwa kwecala ngabahluleli kuyisisekelo esimisweni somthetho wezegebengu waseMelika. UJaji Harlan waphikisa, ephikisa ngokuthi i-Sect Processs Claus enqabela izenzo eziphula umthetho “izimiso ezingokwesiko zenkululeko nobulungisa,” indinganiso ayekholelwa ukuthi yayingadingi ukuqulwa kwamajaji kuzo zonke izimo. Ifilosofi kaHarlan yavame ukubiza ukuthi“ ukwahlulela ngezindinganiso zikahulumeni ezizimele” . Ngokungaqondileyo kuphikisana nendlela eningi yokusingatha. Icala libonisa ukuthi ukungenzeki ngisho nalapho ukuphikisana kwefilosofi kuveza imiphumela ehlukile lapho izivumelwano ezikahlulelweni eziyisisekelo.

Indima Yamalungelo ESichibiyelo Seshumi Nane Noma U Claus

Impikiswano eqhubekayo ngokukhetha i-roupt iyindlela ehlukile e- Privileges noma i-inmmunites Clause yeSichibiyelo se-145]. Saenz v. [[FLT] [1999] [iNkathi], iNkantolo isebenzise isigqebhezana ukuvikela ilungelo lokuhamba. Abanye abaqondisi nombhalo baphikisa ngokuthi le nqubo, hhayi i-Clauslectry Programme, ihloselwe ukudlulisela uBill welungelo ngokumelene nezisho. [FLT] [impela, isilinganiso esiyinhloko senye i-Sault Houses [FFF:] [F5] [5] [iffe] [ist], njengoba ingenza i-exakelele inguquko, njengoba kufanele ukuba iphinde iphiswe, i-Empempe ihlelwe i-Empeyment, iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde i

Izingxabano Zamanje Nekusasa Lokukhetha

Ekhulwini lama-21 leminyaka, iNkantolo icishe yaqeda inqubo yokuhlanganisa ingxenye enkulu yeSigqi Samalungelo. ISichibiyelo sesithathu asizange sifakwe, ikakhulu ngenxa yokuthi asivamile ukubekwa. Isichibiyelo sesibili safakwa [[FLT]] [0] McD [[] [2010] [2010]. Izimpikiswano zefilosofi ziyaqhubeka [[FLT] [FLT] [FLT] [20] [umperight Reformation] ezifanelekiswe kakhulu [intelligements].] zafakwa [indlela e-Timbms [[FLT] [i] [ict:] [i] [i] [inani] [i-xternetic transsionsionssionsment] kuvicel KFt, i-evitumston, ifuna iSivume somthetho somthetho somthetho esinguqulo somthetho womthetho wokuqala, i-Empenu, i-onse, i-onse i-A

Enye indawo ephumayo ukuhlanganiswa kwamalungelo angasongwanga ngokucacile eBill of Rights, njengelungelo lokushada noma ilungelo lokuzimela ngokwawo. Obergefell v. Hodges (2015] isinqumo somshado ofanayo owe-exthensid projectation project, abagxeki abaningi abaphikisayo bayisimo sokuhlanganiswa kwemithetho nge-fiatm. Abasekeli abanjengoMahluleli uThomas baye balahla lesi sizathu, begomela ukuthi i-Gue Procession Claus ayiwanga avikele amalungelo angathinteki. Ukuxabana phakathi kwalamafilosofi kuchaza igalelo elilandelayo lezingxoxo, ikakhulukazi njengendlela yokuhlela yeNkanto.

Izincwadi Eziwusizo Zabafundi, Othisha, Nochwepheshe Bezomthetho

Ukuqonda ukuhlobana phakathi kwefilosofi yokwahlulela nokuhlangana ngokukhetha akuyona nje indlela yokufunda. Othisha, banikeza uhlelo lokuchaza izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme. Kubafundi, kucacisa ukuthi kungani amanye amalungelo esetshenziswa ngokufanayo kuzo zonke izifundazwe kuyilapho amanye engawasebenzisi. Ochwepheshe bezomthetho, kusiza ekubikezeleni ukuthi lamalungelo esikhathi esizayo anganqunywa kanjani. Njengoba iNkantolo ibhekana nemibuzo ephathelene nezindaba zomuntu siqu (ifuna nokuthatheka enkathini ye-mnumfono), iSichibiyelo sesibili ngaphandle kwekhaya, noma amalungelo abamangalelwa ngokwezelelenezomthetho, izibopho zefilosofi ziyokunquma ukuthi lamalungelo abekwe esizwe yini noma ashiywe ezinkantolo. Ukuqala kahle ekuhloleni i-COLD [FLD: 0] i-Crell Information Institutestion of the revolution ye-octivement [Foct1]

Othisha bangasebenzisa imibono ephikisanayo ku [FLT] .Louisiana [[FLT:] kanye uTimbs v. Indianana [[FLT:] [[FLT]] [[FLT]] [isibonelo] ukubonisa ukuthi amakhambi anefilosofi afika kanjani emiphumeleni ehlukene. Abafundi kufanele bakhuthazwe ukuba bafunde imibono engokoqobo ukuze babone ukuthi ukucabanga kwefilosofi kusebenza kanjani. Icebo eliwusizo lokuqhathanisa imibono yi-[FLT:] Indawo esemthethweni yeNkanto ephakeme yeNkanto yeNkantolo [[FLT:]], egcwele imibhalo.

Isiphetho: Ukubaluleka Okuhlala Njalo Kwefilosofi Yokwahlulela

Ukukhetha okunengxenye ebaluleke kakhulu yomthetho-sisekelo kuhlala kungezinye zezici ezinamandla kakhulu ngenxa yokuthi kuthinta ukuphikisana okuyinhloko phakathi kwamandla kahulumeni nenkululeko yombuso, phakathi kwencazelo eqinile nezindinganiso ezivumelanayo. Ifilosofi yokwahlulela isebenza njengekhampasi eqondisa ubulungisa ngabunye kulobugqinsi. Uma i-professor i-productive, umsunguli wezomthetho-mthetho, umbhali wemibhalo, noma umqondisi we-elenspix, ilens ebheka iSimi seSigqi se-14 nesombululo esine esinelisa ngokuqondile isimilo sobuzwe. Njengoba izinselele ezintsha zezentengiselwano zezelo zezekhono zokuzalanisa zisuka ku-" impikiswano eqhubekayo yekhulu leminyaka. Umlando wokukhetha umthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho-buzwe ngokwawo ngokwawo uthatha inselele. Ngokuhlola umlando, kodwa futhi singazihloniphili ngolwazi oludluleyo kuphela izinhloso sezinganiso zezentengo yekhulu lamakhulu lamakhulu lamakhulu amabili.