Isisekelo Esingokomlando Samalungelo Omphakathi

Lapho iBill of Rights igunyazwa ngo-1791, yayihlanganisa izinguquko zokuqala eziyishumi kuMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. Injongo yayo eyinhloko yayiwukulinganisela amandla kahulumeni omusha ngokuhlela inkululeko ekhethekile: inkululeko yokukhuluma, inkolo, ukunyathelisa, ukuhlangana, nokunxusa; ilungelo lokuphatha izikhali; ukuvikela ekuphenyeni okungacabangeki nokuquleka; ukuvikela ekulingweni okulungile; nokuvikelelwa ekujezisweni okunonya nokungajwayelekile, phakathi kwabanye. Ngalesosikhathi, lezi zivumelwano zasebenza kuhulumeni wombuso kuphela, hhayi kumazwe, futhi abazange bakhulume ngokucacile ngamalungelo abesifazane, amaqembu amaqembu ahlukene, noma amanye amaqembu amaqembu ahlukene. Nokho, ulimi lwalezi zigalo zigalo oluthiwandbroundp nolulo oluyondlayo kamuva.

IBill of Rights yokuqala yathonywa izihlakaniphi zengqondo ze-Locke kanye ne-Ngisi Bill of Rights ka-1689. Abaqondisi abafana noJames Madison babheka lezi ziphetho njengesivikelo sokulwa nobushiqela. Nokho, umphakathi ababewubusa wawungalingani kakhulu: ubugqila babungangokomthetho, abesifazane babengenakuvota, futhi imfuno yempahla yayingenakuvimbela ukuthatha inxaxheba kwezombangazwe. UBill of Rights akazichithanga lezizakhiwo, kodwa wakha amagama angokomthetho ayezosetshenziswa izizukulwane ezizayo ukufuna ukulingana. Emakhulwini amabili alandelayo, abashisekeli bezombangazwe, nabahluleli babengachaza futhi baphinde bawabeke imingcele ukuze badlulisele amalungelo omphakathi kubantu base-Afrika, abesifazane, izifiki, izihambeli ezingokwenkolo, abantu ngabanye, nabantu abavamile.

Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo Nokukhula Kwaso Kwasekuqaleni

Ukuze siqonde ukuthi iSiphendulo Sesibili sasivikela kanjani ilungelo lokuphatha izikhali, kodwa ekhulwini le-19 leminyaka, ilungelo lokuthola iSiphakamiso se-Gawulayo lanqatshelwa ngokusemthethweni ukulinganiselwa kwaso kokuqala. ISichibiyelo Sokuqala saqinisekisa ukuveza inkululeko kodwa asivimbanga ohulumeni bamazwe ukuba bahlole inkulumo eyisikhalazo. ISiphendu Sesibili sasingakunaki ukuhlohlwaya nokuphatha izikhali, kodwa esenzeka ngekhulu le-19, ukuthi ilungelo lalenqatshelwa ngokuqhubekayo abantu abaNsundu ngemithetho yokuvala imingcele. ISichibiyelo sesine sasingakuvimbela ukuphenyiswa okungenangqondo nokuqunjelwa, kodwa ngokuvamile sasingathathwa ekwabantu abagqilisweni noma abaphethwe yizivumelwano zempahla nasezindaweni eziningi.

Noma kunjalo, iSiphakamiso samaLungelo sasinembewu yobukhondlali bomhlaba wonke. ISichibiyelo se-Ninth sithi “ukubekwa komthetho-sisekelo, amalungelo athile, ngeke kuthathwe njengokuphika noma ukuhlukanisa abanye abantu abahlala khona.” Le nkulumo esobala yanikeza abameleli ithuba lokuphikisa ukuthi amalungelo angagunyazwanga, njengokuzibusa, ukulingana komzimba nemishado. ISichibiyelo seshumi esigcinelwe amandla emibuso nabantu, lawo amalungelo abantu ayesetshenziswa ekuphikisa izenzo zendawo futhi kamuva avunyelwe ukungenela kwezwe lapho imibuso iphula amalungelo ayisisekelo.

Izinqumo Zokwakha: Ukwandisa Umsebenzi Wesakhelo

Ukumiswa kweZichibiyelo zokwakha kabusha ngemva kweMpi Yombango kwabuguqula kakhulu ubuhlobo phakathi kweSiphakamiso Samalungelo Omphakathi namalungelo omphakathi. ISichibiyelo seshumi elinesithathu (1865) saqeda ubugqila. ISichibiyelo se - 14neth samisa ubuzibulo, saqinisekisa isivikelo esifanayo ngaphansi kwemithetho, futhi savimbela ukuncishisela noma yimuphi umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla ngaphandle kwenqubo ethile. ISiphendumiso seshumi elinesihlanu (1870) sanqabela ukucwasana kohlanga ngokuvota. Lezi zinguquko azizange zithathe indawo yeSibelo samalungelo elungelweni kodwa zandisa ukufinyelela kwaso.

Ingxenye 1 yeSichibiyelo se 14th ibaluleke kakhulu ngoba ibeka imingcele ngokuqondile kohulumeni bezwe: “Awukho uHulumeni oyomisa noma uphoqelele noma yimuphi umthetho ozofaka ibhuloho noma ukugoma kwezakhamuzi zase-United States; futhi noma yimuphi uMbuso ngeke unciphise noma imuphi umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho; noma uphike noma ubani ongaphansi kwawo isivikelo esilinganayo semithetho.” Lolu limi lunganikeza igebezo lokufaka iBhili leMibuso Yamalungelo ezindaweni ezihlangene nemithetho eqaphela amalungelo amasha abalulekile ekulinganayo. Isibonelo, [[FLT: 0] uClausleas [[FLD:1]] [FLD]] [e.]

Inkathi yokuvuselelwa futhi yabona ukudluliswa kwezenzo zamalungelo omphakathi, njengoMthetho wamalungelo oMsebenzi wango-1866 noMthetho Wamalungelo Omphakathi ka-1875, owawufuna ukuphoqelela ukubuyiselwa. Nokho, iNkantolo Ephakeme yawakhipha amalungiselelo ayinhloko [ Amacala eNdlu [1873] [1873]] kanye ] ne-CIIIIImfanelo yamalungelo [ [1883]], ilinganisela isilinganiso sesivikelo sikahulumeni. Kwakuzothatha cishe ikhulu leminyaka phambi kwenkantolo iphinde iphinde ikhiphe le mithetho esemthethweni.

Imfundiso Yokuvumelana

Enye yezindlela ezibaluleke kakhulu ezingokomthetho zokwandisa amalungelo omphakathi ngeBhill of Rights iyimfundiso ehlukanisayo. Lenkolelo engokomthetho ithi i-Createment Procession of the 1450 Reformation yenza amalungiselelo amaningi eSivumelwano samaLungelo esisebenza kuhulumeni. Ngaphambi kokuba sihlanganiswe, abantu bangabekela inselele izenzo zikahulumeni kuphela ngaphansi kwe-Bill of Rights; iziphetho zazikhululekile ukubekela imingcele yenkulumo, ukumisa inkolo, noma ukwenza ukuphenya okungenangqondo ngaphandle kokuba imithetho yabo siqu inqabele.

Kusukela ekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20 leminyaka, iNkantolo Ephakeme kancane kancane yahlanganisa amalungelo akhethekile. Getlow v. New York (1925), iNkantolo yakholelwa ukuthi inkululeko yokukhuluma yayiyinkululeko eyisisekelo evikelwe umbuso i-Bridgidgiment. [[FLT:] [[FLT:]] Benet] v. [[FLT][3] [193] [193], inkululeko yokunyathelisa yafakwa.] Inqubo yaqhubeka phakathi kuka-1960 ngaphansi kwe-Mongameli we-Mongameli we-Greastery Warrenrenren; [[3] [4] [impompopezendla].[5] [imposiso] [imposisonyu] kakhulu, [imposiso sokuvikela i-okanye ne-om] [imponsola] [impela, [i-Expedia)] ku-Expediase, [ison (ix] ku-Expediase,[19

Imfundiso yokuhlanganisa kwakuyithuluzi elibucayi kumaqembu ancishisiwe ngenxa yokuthi yayiwavumela ukuba abeke inselele yemithetho yobandlululo, njengoJim Crow i-paration nombuso wokuvinjelwa komshado wezinhlanga ngezinhlanga. Ngaphandle kokufakwa, izinqumo zezimpawu ezifana no Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo[ [1954] ingenza kube nethonya elincane ngoba yayincike ekuvimbeleni iSivikeli esiKhumele i-Dintellinethi yeSichime seSichithi se-145, esisebenza ngokuqondile ekusho ukuthi isho. Kodwa futhi i-Contension yasho ukuthi ukuphulwa kwezwe kwenkululeko yokukhuluma ngenkululeko, umhlangano, nenkululeko yenkolo kungalungiswa ukuthi kwakubalulekile ezinhlanganweni zomphakathi.

Amacala Ayinhloko Enkantolo Andisa Amalungelo Omphakathi

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Lesi sinqumo sohlanga sihlangene sathi ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi akuhlangene, kugumbuqelwa imfundiso “ukuhlukanisa kodwa ilingana” evela ku Presev. Ferguson [1896]]. INkantolo yathi ukunciphisa abantwana abamnyama bamathuba alinganayo okufundisa, ukwephula iSikhuthazo se 145 seSikhungo sika Claus. Isinqumo asizange sithembele ngokuqondile kuBill of Rights kodwa sasisekelwe ku-Implicon ammentations, ezaze zandisa isivikelo somthetho-mthetho. [FLT:] BBN [FFFF]

Gideon v. Wainwright (163)[FLT] Clarence Earl Gideon, indoda empofu emangalelwe ngokugqekeza igumbi lokulala, waphikwa ummeli ngoba umthetho waseFlorida kuphela wanikeza iseluleko emacaleni angokonyaka wenhloko. Wanxusa, waphikisa ukuthi iSimemezelo seSimemezelo Sesithupha sigunyazwe ezinkantolo zezwe ngeNguquko yeshumi elinesine. INkanto ephakeme yavuma, imisa ukuthi kumelwe ikhiphe abamangalelwa emacaleni angokomthetho ezindaweni ezingosini ezifayo. Lesi sinqumo sanweba sanweba ngokuphawulekayo ukufinyelela ekwahlulelweni emiphakathini ehlalweni ephansi neyo ebhekenezelelena ngokungenamali. Isinqumo sokuhlala isakhiwo senqubo engokomthetho futhi sinweba ezinye izigebelele.

[[FLT: 0] Icala elihilela uRichard Long, u-Gradian (1967)

[[FLT:] [[FLT]]], iNkantolo yakhipha imithetho kahulumeni enqabela ukuganana kwezinhlanga. Icala lalihilela u-Mirlie Long, u-Mildred Jeter, owesifazane oMnyama, owashade eWashington, DC., futhi wabekwa icala ngecala eVirginia ngaphansi kwenqubo ye-igebethi ye-pal Paralitial Act. INkanto Ephakeme yanquma ukuthi umshado uyilungelo eliyisisekelo futhi imingcele yobuhlanga yemithetho yomshado yaphula kokubili i-Claus Clausse nesivikelo esilinganayo. [Forvet][5]

[[NTLT: 0] Isinqumo sowesifazane sokukhipha isisu v. [[1973] Inkantolo yathi ilungelo lokuzifihla, elishiwo yiBill of Rights (ikakhulukazi, Eyesine, Eyesihlanu, Eyesihlanu, neyeshumi elinesine]), sivikela isinqumo sowesifazane sokukhipha isisu ngaphambi kokuba usana lungaphunyuki. Nakuba i-20222 yenze isinqumo i-Dobs v. Jackson’s Organization of Health ihleba ne-mthetho womthetho we- lungelo wokukhipha isisu, [[[FLT][FFLT]] [FFLT]] [FFL:5]] [4] [evod, [4] esingunyakazelele,[4],[3] futhi i-evolution:[3]

INkantolo yagcizelela ukuthi umshado uyisisekelo sokuhleleka kwezenhlalo (

] kulelicala eliyingqopha - mlando, iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi imibhangqwana efanayo engokobulili inelungelo eliyisisekelo lokushada ngaphansi kweNkathi yeSiphetho se-145 yeSiphendulo soMphetho ne-Linganiselo ka-Celatement Celation. INkantolo yagcizelela ukuthi umshado uyisisekelo sohlelo lwezenhlalakahle futhi uwenqabela ukuba imibhangqwana efanayo yenze ilulaze isithunzi nenkululeko yayo. [[FLT:]] OFLT ] amalungelo omphakathi anwebekiwe ngenxa ye-LTQ+ abantu ngabanye ngokuqinisekisa ukufinyelela okulinganayomthetho, umphakathi, nezinzuzo zezomnotho. Isinqumo esibekwe ngokomthetho esikwehlela imithetho yobugebengu (Fogn.[5]]]) futhi imvume yemindebe yolimi oluqinile yeSikhathi seSikhathi seSikhathi seSishaya-Sikhathi sesizwe esingu esingu esingu esingokomthetho esingokomthetho soku

Ezinye izenzakalo ezibalulekile zihlanganisa Bostock v. Clayton County [2020], eyachaza isihloko VII se-Civil Rights Act (iSivumelwano samalungelo omphakathi) sokwenqabela ukucwaswa kwesisekelo sendlela engokocansi nobulili) `i-astatastio-mment yokwenezela izimiso ezilinganayo zesivikelo ezitholakala kuMthetho-sisekelo. [[FLT:] Shelby County v. Raker[ (2013]) 2016) yalula i-Voting Rights Act Act ngesisekelo ka-19656, ikhumbuza izikhathilo ukuthi isivikelo se-Bill of Rights ne-andment ezilandelayo zidinga ukuqapha njalo.

Izinselele Zanamuhla Nezinselele Eziqhubekayo

Namuhla, iSiphakamiso Sesiphendu samalungelo abantu siyaqhubeka sisebenza kokubili njengesihlangu nenkemba yamaqembu ancishisiwe. Abameli bamagama bacaphuna iSichibiyelo sokuqala sokuvikela ilungelo labo lokubhikisha, ukumasha, nokugxeka ubandlululo. ISichibiyelo sesine sisetshenziselwa ukubekela inselele ukuqapha okukhulu nokuveza izinhlanga. ISichibiyelo seSichibiyelo seNguquko sonya nesijeziso esingavamile sisetshenziselwa ukulwa nokugweba ngokweqile, izimo zasejele, nesigwebo sokufa njengoba sisetshenziswa kubantu abambalwa. Isinqumo sesibili sicelwa amaqembu athile angena emaqenjini amelene nobandlululo, njengabani ababhamu, ukuze siphikise ukufinyelela izibhamu ezigeqelweni zokuzibolo ezingokwenhlahla zezinhlanga.

Naphezu kwalentuthuko, kusele imingcele eminingi. [[FLT: 0] Amalungelo ahlale ehlaselwa ngemithetho ye-octer ye-ID, i-gerrymannder, kanye nokususwa kwemicu yevota ethinta imibala ngokungenakulinganiswa. [[[FLT:] Inkululeko [[FLT:] yenkolo [[FLT:] emiswe [[FLT]] kuleyo mithetho ye-'FLT] [[FLT:]]] ivame ukuhlonishwa ekwaphuzwini, ngezimiso zomphakathi ezivikela imibala futhi ezigcweleyo. [[FFFFFF:6] emba] intergomu yombili isetshenziselwa ukuvikela ukholo oluncane nokuthethelela ukucwala abantu abambalwa [i-LT] [iright Groult] [5])]

Abaxhasi bemithetho bayaqhubeka bencika ezimisweni ezibekwe eBill of Rights ukulwela ukulingana nobulungisa. Ngokwesibonelo, iSichibiyelo sokuqala [[FLT:] sivikela ilungelo lokuhlanganisa, elalinzima kakhulu ekunqanyulweni kwe-Black Livement Matter eyaqothula isizwe ngo-2020. [[FLT:] [FLT]] Siye sasetshenziselwa ukubekela inselele izivumelwano nemikhuba yamaphoyisa ehlasela imiphakathi yezindawo ezimbalwa. [[FLT] [FLT] Intect: [5] Intelligement ephawulwe ngokungenamkhawulo.[FLT] [FLT] isebenza ngokukhunjulwayo futhi ingasebenzi ngokusemthethweni.[5]

Izimiso zamalungelo abantu emhlabeni wonke nazo zithonya ukuchazwa kwezindawo zomphakathi. Nakuba iBhili yamalungelo ase-U.S. indala kunezincwadi eziningi zanamuhla zamalungelo abantu, izivumelwano ezinjengeSivumelwano sezizwe zonke samalungelo abantu esisemgaqweni nasePolitical Rights (ICCPR) neSivumelwano sokususwa kwaMahlelo Ohlanga Onke (CERD) neSivumelwano sokuThintisa Izizwe Ngenani Lonke Lobandlululo (CRD) sinikeza igunya elinamandla olwengeziwe lokuvikela amalungelo abantu. Nokho, i-U.S. ayizange yazise izivumelwano zamalungelo abantu abavamile, futhi izinkantolo azivamile zikhomba umthetho wezizwe njengesibopho. Noma kunjalo, ulimi lweSidlo seMidlali Sezizwe Samalungelo embuluko sembulunga yonke ngenxa yobulungisa.

Izinkinga Ezingezwani

Amaqembu ahlukene ngokuvamile abhekene nezinqubo ezibekwayo zokucwasana − RAce, ubulili, ukukhubazeka, ukufuduka. I-Bill of Rights ayibhekisi ngokuqondile ukuhlangana kwezindawo, kodwa izinkantolo seziqalile ukucabangela ukuthi izici eziningi ezivikelekile zisebenza kanjani. Ngokwesibonelo, Hernez v. Robles [200] [200] [iNkakhulu] (2006], iNkantolo yeNew York yezikhathi zokudluliso zenqaba izivumelwano ezithenelisa izikhala ezifanayo ze-imvume yomshado, kodwa indlela yesizwe ehloselwe ] ewehlela [[FLTGL:3]] ibheka isithunzi se-LGTQ+ abantu bazo zonke izinhlanga. Izinkonzo ezidingekayo phakathi kwe-LFom], izikhundla ezifunekayo kubantu abanezinkonzo ezivamile.[5][5]

Isiphetho

IBill of Rights, ekuqaleni isithiyo sokuvimbela amandla kahulumeni, iye yaguqukela ekubeni incwadi ephilayo evikela inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye futhi yenza ukuba kuqhubeke intuthuko yezenhlalo. Kodwa ngoMphetho weSichibiyelo seshumi nane, ukuhlanganisa imfundiso, nezincazelo zokwahlulela ezingokomthetho, izinguquko zokuqala eziyishumi ziye zasetshenziselwa ukwandisa amalungelo omphakathi kubantu baseAfrika, abesifazane, iLGBTQ+ abantu abambalwa, abantu abangokwenkolo, abantu abakhubazekile, namanye amaqembu ahlukene. Kodwa ukulwa namaqembu ahlukene kukude kakhulu. Isizukulwane ngasinye kumelwe sichaze lamalungelo ngokucabangela izinselele ezintsha futhi siqinisekise ukuthi izithembiso zenkululeko, ukulingana, nesithunzi zidlulela kubo bonke abantu. Njengoba iNkanto ephakeme iNkantolo iyaqhubeka ibumba umthetho, uBill welungelo lihlala liyithuluzi elinamandla lokulwela abashisekelizwe, i-ligator, nezakhamuzi abasekela umphakathi abavamile.

[[Umthetho:0] Ukuze ufundwe ngokuqhubekayo:[[Umthetho:1]

  • [[IZIQULAYO:0] Izinqolobane zesizwe: Ibhukwana lamalungelo [
  • [[UMTH:0]Oyez: Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo
  • [[NTL:0] Cornell Legal Information Institute: Imfundiso yokuHlanganisa
  • [[UMTL:0] ACLU: Roe v.Ade kanye ne-Revolution ship
  • Obergefell v. Hodges (Isinqumo seNkantolo ePhakeme)