Isingeniso: I - Cornerstone of Proclarationism

Ukubukezwa kokwahlulela kungamandla ezinkantolo okuhlola izenzo zamagatsha omthetho nomphathi futhi kuqedela impumelelo lawo aphikisana nomthetho-sisekelo. Leligunya, nakuba lingabalwanga ngokucacile ezibhalweni eziningi zokusungula, liye laba isici esiyinhloko sokubusa komthetho-sisekelo wanamuhla. Ngokunika amandla ejaji elizimele ukuphoqelela imingcele engokomthetho-mthetho, ukuhlola inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye, ukuqinisekisa ukulandisa kukahulumeni, futhi lilondoloza ukwahlukana kwemibuso. Kusukela ekutholeni kwalo kwakuqala eUnited States kuya ekwamukeleni kwayo imiyalweni yemithetho-mthetho-mthetho-sisekelo emhlabeni wonke, ukubukeza kokwahlulela kuhlala kuyinto eshukumisayo futhi ngokuvamile encintisanayo yenkululeko yomthetho wentando yeningi.

Lemfundiso isekelwe ekuqondeni okuyisisekelo: imithetho-sisekelo elotshiwe iwumthetho ophakeme, futhi iyindima yejaji ukuchaza lowomthetho lapho kuphakama izingxabano. Ngaphandle kwenqubo yokuphoqelela ukuphakama komthetho-sisekelo, umthetho wesici wengozi nje ukuba ube yizinhloso eziyisisekelo zethemba. Ukubukeza komthetho - sisekelo kuguqula izithembiso zomthetho - sisekelo zibe amalungelo aqikelelwe. Lesihloko sihlola izimpande ezingokomlando zokuhlola, imisebenzi yaso ebalulekile ekuvikeleni amalungelo nokulinganisela amandla, amacala angokomlando aye athonya ukusebenza kwawo, nezinsolo ezigxeki eziqhubeka zibangela impikiswano phakathi kwezazi nabenzi bezomthetho.

Imvelaphi Nentuthuko Yomlando

Isisekelo Sokuqala Somthetho WesiNgisi

Umqondo wokuthi izinkantolo zingabukeza umthetho wokuvumelana nomthetho ophakeme wangaphambi kokusungulwa kweMelika. ENgilandi, umbono kaSir Edward Coke Dr. UCase [ [1610] [1610] wasikisela ukuthi “lapho isenzo sePhalamende simelene nelungelo elifanayo nesizathu, noma inyanyeka, noma okungenakwenzeka ukwenziwa, umthetho ofanayo uyowulawula.” Nakuba lesi simiso singathathanga impande eUnited Kingdom ngenxa yemfundiso yobukhosi bephalamende, sathonya abasebenzi bomphakathi kamuva abasungula isimiso somthetho ophakeme.

Ngekhulu leshumi nesishiyagalombili, ongqondongqondo bezemithetho baseBrithani njengoWilliam Blackstone bavuma ukuthi amandla omthetho, nakuba enegunya, angalinganiselwa ngomthetho wemvelo. Nokho abavukeli baseMelika badlulela phambili: basungula incwadi ebopha bonke abadlali bakahulumeni futhi engaphoqelelwa izinkantolo ezizimele.

Marbury v. Madison: I - American Breakthrough

Icala eliyingqophamlando .Madison (103) (1803) libongwa emhlabeni wonke ngokumisa ukubukeza kokwahlulela eUnited States. Ukubhalela iNkantolo Ephakeme, uMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall wamemezela ukuthi “kugcizelela isifundazwe nomsebenzi womnyango wokwahlulela ukuthi uyini umthetho.” Marshall wacabanga ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo ungumthetho ophakeme wezwe, nokuthi noma yimuphi umthetho owenyanyekayo kuyo kumelwe ukuba ungabi nalutho. Nakuba uMthendeleko unganikezi iNkanto ecacile yempindayo yokwahlulela, Marshall waveza ukuthi yona kanye indlela yomthetho obhalwe ngayo.

Impikiswano esheshayo − noma uWilliam Marbury wayenelungelo lokuya enkambisweni yakhe njengobulungisa bokuthula − yaxazululwa ngendlela eyagwema ukuphikisana noMongameli Thomas Jefferson. Ngokuthola ukuthi umthetho onikeza imvume yokuqala yeNkantolo phezu kwemibhoshongo yemandamus wephula iSiphakamiso III, Marshall wamisa ukubukezwa kokwahlulela futhi wabonisa ukuvinjelwa. Wafunda icala eliphelele ku-Oyez.

Ukusakazeka Kokubukezwa Kokwahlulela Embulungeni Yonke

Ngemva kweMpi Yezwe II, izizwe eziningi zamukela izinkantolo ezingokomthetho noma zagunyaza izinkantolo eziphakeme ezazikhona ngegunya lokubukeza. INkantolo ye-Federal Constitutional, eyamiswa ngo-1951, yaba isibonelo sokuhlola kokwahlulela okuqondile. ICharter of Rights and Freedoms yaseCanada (1982) yanikeza izinkantolo amandla aqinile okubukeza, nakuba “inombolo engagunyaziwe” ivumela izishaya - mthetho ezithile. Ngisho nombuso we-United Kingdom, osekuyisikhathi eside umelana nokubukezwa komthetho oyinhloko, uye wabona izinkantolo ziveza amandla okulahla kancane kancane imithetho ephambene nomthetho we-Europe Union noma i-Human Rights Act 1998. Namuhla, amazwe angaphezu kuka-50 anendlela ethile yokuhlola kwezehlulelo.

Ukuvikela Amalungelo Abantu Ngabodwa

Amalungelo Omphakathi Nokulingana Kohlanga

Ukubukeza kokwahlulela kuye kwaba yinjini eyinhloko yokuqhubekisela phambili amalungelo omphakathi e-United States. Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (1954) yahlasela ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi, yagumbuqela “ukuhlukana kodwa” imfundiso ye-] ewubufanayo. Ferguson. Umphathi weSizwe u-Earl Warrenrenrents wabhala ukuthi izakhiwo zemfundo ezishicilelwe“ azilingani,” futhi isinqumo seNkantolo sibuyekeza imithetho yokwahlulela ehlanekezelwe isigaba sesigaba sezwe. [FLT] Brown. [FLD]

Ngokufanayo, u-Lovang v. Virginia (1967) wasebenzisa ukubukeza kokwahlulela ukuze akhiphe imithetho emelene nombuso emelene nokushada, ememezela ukuthi “inkululeko yokushada, noma ukungashadi, umuntu wolunye uhlanga uhlala nomuntu futhi akanakuphambaniswa yizwe.” Lamacala abonisa indima yenkantolo njengomvikeli wamaqembu ancishisiwe ekucindezeleni okukhulu.

Inkululeko Yokukhuluma Nenkulumo

Ukubukeza kokwahlulela kuvikela futhi ukudayiswa kwemibono. KuyiNew York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964), iNkantolo Ephakeme yakholelwa ukuthi iSichibiyelo Sokuqala sivikela izinkulumo ezingamanga ngezikhulu zomphakathi ngaphandle kokuba senziwe “ngengozi,” simisa isiqobo sesudi yokuhlambalaza. Muva nje, [[FLT:]] ku-Citns United v. FORC[FTY][FTY] [2010], iNkanto elulayo amalungiselelo e-Bipartains Changetion Active Act evimbela ukukhisatshwa kwemithetho yezombangazwe ezimele ngezinhlangano, ukuveza ukuthi inqubo yezezombangazwe ivikela isikhulumi sesikhulumi. Nakuba lendaba iphikisana ngokuhlola i-proclogoduction.

Ukuzishintsha Kwezinto Ngasese Nokuzishintsha Ngokuzenza Ube Wedwa

Ilungelo lokufihla imfihlo, nakuba lingashiwonga ngokuqondile eMthethweni, liye laqashelwa ngokuhlola kokwahlulela. Griswold v.Connecticut (1965) yashaya umthetho ovimbela ukuvimbela ukuvimbela inzalo, yathola “imvume” yamalungelo enkululeko eyimfihlo kuBill of Rights. [FLT:] [2] Roe v. [[FLT]] [19773]) Yandisa leyondlela yokucabanga ngokukhipha isisu, iqaphela inzuzo yowesifazane ngaphansi kwe-Mbusombululo ka-Claus. [[FLT] [FLT] [FL:] [5] [indlela yokuqala yokukhipha izigwebo] ngaphansi kwemithetho engokomthetho egunyaza umthetho wokukhipha izisulwayo.[FLT] [b] [ib] Inhlangano lezempilo: [2] [2] [2] Inhlangano yezenyukstrimetictions]

Ukulinganisela Amandla Kahulumeni

Ukuhlukana Kwamandla

Ukubukeza kokwahlulela kuyi-inquisio ebalulekile kwamanye amagatsha. Entsha i-Youlstown Comment Comment Thube Co. v. Sayer (1952), iNkantolo Ephakeme yenza uMongameli Truman wachitha amandla omthetho wokulawula izinsimbi phakathi neMpi yaseKorea. INkantolo yathi uMongameli wayengenagunya elingokomthetho lokuthatha isinyathelo esinjalo ngaphandle kwemvume yokuhlanganisa isivumelwano. UJack Jackson’s Convenctrence, u-criciate planel kaMongameli we-kampalate efuna amandla egunya elikhulu, uhlala ungenawo omunye wemibono enethonya kakhulu ngokuhlukanisa imibuso.

Muva nje, INS v. Chadha [19983] wabulala iveto yemithetho, isisetshenziswa esisetshenziselwa ukugumbuqela izinqumo zenkampani ngaphandle kokushaya umthetho. INkantolo yanquma ukuthi iveto yaphula iPreentment Clause, edinga i-bidaralism ne-aption kuMongameli nganoma yisiphi isenzo somthetho. Lamacala abonisa ukubukezwa kwegatsha elithile ekuvimbeleni ukungenela kwemibuso yenye.

Ubumbano Nombuso

Futhi inqumiso yokwahlulela iveza ukulinganisela phakathi kohulumeni besizwe nohulumeni. United States v. Lopez (1995], iNkantolo Ephakeme yabambelela ekutheni ukuphatha isibhamu endaweni yesikole kwakungalithinti kakhulu ibhizinisi lamazwe ahlukene, kubeke imingcele yamandla entengiselwano yezentengiselwano yeCuarter. Lokhu kwaphawula okokuqala eminyakeni ecishe engamashumi ayisithupha ukuba iNkanto ihlaze umthetho kahulumeni wegunya lezentengiselwano elidlulele, kubonakalisa isibopho esisha sezentengiselwano yezentengiselwano yezwe.

Ngakolunye uhlangothi, [[QT:0] Arizona v. United States (202) yachitha amalungiselelo ayinhloko omthetho kazwelonke wokufuduka, icabanga ukuthi ukugcinwa kwabantu abafudukayo kuncishiswa umthetho kahulumeni. Ngalezi zinqumo, ukubukezwa kokwahlulela kulondoloza ukwakhiwa komthetho-mthetho wobukhosi obumbaxa-mbili.

Umbono Oqhathaniswayo Ngokubukeza Kokwahlulela

Isibonelo SaseMelika: Ukubukeza Okunamandla Komdlandla 16)

I-United States isebenzisa i-premicision ehloniphekile, eqinile: noma iliphi inkantolo ingamemezela umthetho ongekho emthethweni, futhi incazelo yeNkantolo Ephakeme ibopha wonke amagatsha. Akukho mthetho owehlulekayo ukuqeda ukulungiswa komthetho-mthetho, okunzima ngamabomu. Lomfanekiso unikeza izinkantolo amandla amakhulu okuhlela isimiso, ukhulisa ukukhathazeka mayelana nenkinga yokuhlola inqubo yomthetho nezimiso zedemokrati.

Isibonelo SaseBrithani: Ubukhosi BePhalamende

EUnited Kingdom, izinkantolo azinakushaya iMithetho yePhalamende ngenxa yokuthi iPhalamende liyinkosi. Nokho, uMthetho we-Human Rights Act 1998 uvumela izinkantolo ukuba zinikeze “ukunqunyelwa kokungavumelani,” zibonise ukuthi umthetho wephula iSivumelwano saseYurophu samalungelo abantu. IPhalamende linenkulumo yokugcina, isekela umthetho owephula umthetho owephula umthetho. Lemizamo ebuthakathaka ye-86 yokuhlanganisa ukuvikelwa kwamalungelo enqubweni yentando yeningi. [FLT: 0] Ifunda i-Act of Human Rights Act 1998.

Isibonelo SaseCanada: I - Charter Burner enesivalo Sokuphepha

I-Constitution’s Constitution Act, 1982, kuhlanganise ne-Chater of Rights and Freedoms, inikeza izinkantolo amandla aqinile okubukeza. Nokho, i-Cate 33=izishaya-mthetho eziqinile” ("izishaya - mthetho zesifunda") zokuqeda amalungelo athile eTreader ngezikhathi ezinhlanu zeminyaka. Leligunya liye lasetshenziswa ngokuphawulekayo iQuebec ngomthetho wolimi. I-Canada izama ukulinganisela igunya lokwahlulela negunya lomthetho wemithetho.

Izinkantolo Zomthetho - sisekelo ZaseYurophu

Amazwe amaningi aseYurophu anezinkantolo ezikhethekile zomthetho-sisekelo ezibukeza ngokufiphele (imithetho enqumayo ngaphambi kokuba isebenze) kanye nokubukeza okuqinile (ukuzwa izikhalo kubantu ngabanye). Ngokwesibonelo, iNkantolo ye-German Federal Constitution iye yachitha imithetho eyimfihlo, ukukhuluma ngokukhululekile, nesivikelo semininingwane, iguqula isimo somthetho wezwe. INkantolo yeJaji ye-European Union ne-European Court of Human Rights inikeza ukubukeza okuhlanganisa amazwe, iveza isimiso esinentelezi zamalungelo ahlukahlukene.

Amacala Awuphawu Achaza Ukubukezwa Kokwahlulela

Ukwandisa Amalungelo Abantu Ngabo

  • Mapp v.O. (1961): Wasebenzisa umthetho wokukhishwa kwezinkantolo zikahulumeni, wavala ubufakazi obutholakala ngokuhlola okungacabangeki nokuquleka.
  • Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Amaphoyisa adinga ukutshela abasolwayo ngamalungelo abo ukuthi bangathulisa futhi banikeze iseluleko ngaphambi kokuphenywa kwemvume.
  • Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Umshado ogunyazwe ngokomthetho ofanayo wobulili obungahambelani nenkolo ezweni lonke, uphethe ukuthi iSichibiyelo seshumi elinesine siqinisekisa ilungelo lokushada kungakhathaliseki ubulili noma indlela yobulili.
  • LAWREnce v. Texas (2003): Ukuvala imithetho kahulumeni yesodoma, uqaphela isithakazelo esiseduze ebuhlotsheni obuseduze bomuntu siqu.

Ukuhlola Ukuhlasela Okungaphezu Kwesilinganiso Kuhulumeni

  • United States v. Nixon (1974]): Ukusho kukaMongameli uNixon ilungelo eliphelele lokuphatha, kumphoqelela ukuba aphendule amakhasethi eWatergate.
  • Clinton v. City of New York (1998): yalahla i-Line Inter Veto Act, eyanika uMongameli amandla okucisha izinto ezithile ezisetshenziswayo ngaphandle kokuvunyelwa kwe-countalia.
  • Indawo ye Homeland Security v. Regents zeYunivesithi yaseCalifornia [2020]): Yavala ukuzama kwe-Trump ukuphindela emuva kwe-DACA, ithola ukucabanga okungahleli kahle nokungahleleki.

Ukugxekwa Nezinselele

Ubunzima Bempi

Ukugxekwa okuphikelela kakhulu kokuhlola kokwahlulela kuyindlela ebonakala ngayo ukuphikisana nentando yeningi. Uma abahluleli abangakhethwenga begumbuqela imithetho edluliswa izishaya-mthetho ezithandwayo, bathatha isikhundla sezimiso zabo kulezo zabantu. U-Alexander Bickel ngokudume ngokuthi “inkinga yobuzwe.” Abasekeli baphendula ngokuthi ukubukezwa kokwahlulela kuvikela idlanzana leqembu namalungelo ayisisekelo angazishaya indiva, nokuthi uMthetho-sisekelo ngokwawo uyincwadi yentando yeningi elinganisela izombangazwe.

Ukuthatha Icala Ngokwahlulela Kumelene Nemingcele

Abagxeki bavame ukusola izinkantolo ngokuthi “ziyizenzo zomthetho” lapho zishaya imithetho, kuyilapho zidumisa“ ukunqanda ukunqanda kwemithetho” uma zikhuluma ngezishayamthetho. Nokho, lamagama athwele ngokwemibono. Ngokwesibonelo, abanamasu agubha i-United [ukugubha] (ukwenza imikhankaso yezezimali) kungalahla incazelo yokuqala yombhalo womthetho wezezimali Obergefell[ (ukwenza umshado ofanayo wezentengiselwano) njengomshisekeli, futhi ngokuphikisana. Empeleni, bonke abahluleli bahlanganyela ekuchazeni; umbuzo ukuthi banamathela ekuqondeni kokuqala komthetho womthetho womthetho wesi noma ukuthatha indlela ephilayo yokusebenza.

Ukumiswa Kwezinqumo Okuhloniphekile

Emazweni amaningi, inqubo yokukhetha amajaji iye yaba isiqinisekiso sezombangazwe kakhulu seNkantolo ePhakeme yase-U.S. manje izimpi eziphenyayo, futhi abaqondisi ngokuvamile babhebhethekiswa ngenxa yokuthambekela kwabo kwemibono ezindabeni ezishisayo. Lokhu kungaqeda ukuthembela komphakathi ekungakhethini kwejaji. Ezinye izazi zisikisela izinguquko ezinjengomngcele ongokwezinombolo ongokomthetho wokwahlulela noma inkathi yokuthatha umhlalaphansi ephoqelelwe ukuze zinciphise ukumiswa.

Ukuphangwa Kwenkantolo Nokusongelwa Kwezinhlangano

Imizamo yokuhlela ukunwetshwa noma ukuhlelwa kabusha kwe-jadiary .Ivame ukubizwa ngokuthi “inkantolo ‚packing”" `Iwusongo oluqondile ekuzimeleni kokwahlulela. Ngo-1937, uMongameli uFranklin Roosevelt wasikisela ukunezela kumajaji amasha ayisithupha eNkantolo Ephakeme ngemva kokubulala izinhlelo zakhe ezintsha. Lelicebo lahluleka, kodwa lesisenzakalo sibonisa indlela amagatsha ezombangazwe angazama ngayo ukuqeda i-jaji elingenabungane. Izicelo ezifanayo ziye zaphinde zaphinde zavuselelwa eminyakeni yamuva, ziphakamisa imibuzo ephathelene nokuzinziswa kwe-2006 yengxoxo yokwahlulela.

Ikusasa Lokubukeza Kokwahlulela

Izimfundiso Ezishintshayo

Njengoba umphakathi ushintsha, izimfundiso zokwahlulela zivumelana. Ukushintshela kweNkantolo ePhakeme eU.S. ekuqulweni kwakuqala nasekubhalweni kwemibhalo, okuholwa uMahluleli uAntonin Scalia futhi kuqhubekelwa yiningi elingaguquki, kungase kunciphise izinga lesivikelo samalungelo. Ngesikhathi esifanayo, izinkantolo eziphansi nezinkantolo eziphakeme zikahulumeni zichaza ngokuqhubekayo imithetho-mthetho kahulumeni ukuze inikeze isivikelo esikhulu kunoMthetho-Constitus kazwelonke."

Ubuchwepheshe Nezindaba Zomuntu Siqu

Ubuchwepheshe bezemishini buveza izinselele ezintsha zokuhlolwa kokwahlulela. Izinkantolo kumelwe zinqume ukuthi iSichibiyelo sesine sisebenza kanjani emniningwaneni we-cell highone, ukuthi i-algoriths ezisetshenziswa ekugwebeni ubugebengu zingqubuzana nenqubo efanele, nokuthi izimiso zokukhuluma ngokukhululekile zidlulela kanjani kumapulatifomu ezokuxhumana. AmaCarter v. United States [208], iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi uhulumeni ngokuvamile udinga imvume yokungena emadolobheni angokomlando, iqaphela ukuthi ubuchwepheshe obusha bungaqeda amathemba ezindaba zomuntu siqu.

Ukuthambekela Kwembulunga Yonke

Ukubukezwa kokwahlulela kuyaqhubeka kusakazekela embulungeni yonke, kodwa futhi kubhekene nokungavumelani. Emazweni anjengeHungary, iPoland, neTurkey, ohulumeni baye benza buthaka izinkantolo zomthetho-sisekelo ngokulawula umthetho, ukulahla, nokukhipha abahluleli abazimele. Ukuncishiswa kwenkululeko yokwahlulela ezindaweni ezintsha zentando yeningi kugcizelela ukungalungi komthetho- sisekelo. Ngokuphambene, iNkantolo yamaMelika Yamalungelo Abantu neNkantolo yaseAfrika eHlase In Human and People’s ikhulisa igunya labo lokubukeza, inikeza ithemba lesivikelo ezindaweni ezinezinhlangano ezibuthakathaka.

Isiphetho

Ukubukeza kokwahlulela kuseyindawo ebalulekile kodwa ephikiswayo. Ngokunika izinkantolo amandla okuqeda imithetho engekho emthethweni kanye nezenzo zokuphatha, kuvikela amalungelo ayisisekelo futhi kulondoloze ukulinganisela komthetho-sisekelo. Amacala okulawula abangelwa uMarbury[ ku-[FLT:] [i-OMberge yehlela [[]] isho ukuthi impumelelo yayo eguqulayo, kuyilapho ukugxeka okuphikelelayo kwemithetho elawulayo, ukuthatha i-palitisting, ukuhlaziywayela okuthiwe yi-paltissstionactive isstion activement, i-judiary, nensectivessssssss nomthetho omusha we-meogavitual, ukukhomba ukukhomba okunga izikhulu, futhi ukwahlulela okungcono kakhulu. Ngokulandela uhulumeni, akuyidingidingi ukukho ukukho ukubusa.