Inkathi Yangaphambi Kokuphela: Ama - United States njengoMbusi

Ngaphambi kwekhulu lama-20 leminyaka, iBill of Rights yaqondwa njengesethi yemithetho ebekelwe i- yodwa. Umthetho-sisekelo wokuqala, njengoba wabunjwa ngo-1787, wawungenawo umthetho wamalungelo, futhi izinguquko ezamukelwa ngo-1791 zaqondiswa ngokuqondile eKhongosweni: “ISishaya-mthetho angeke senze ...” (ISiphendu Sokuqala). Ohulumeni bahlala bekhululekile ukumisa izinkolo zabo siqu, imingcele yenkulumo, ukuphehlwa, ukuphenya, nokuphika ukuqulwa kwecala lobugebengu — konke lokhu ngaphandle kokusetshenziswa kwe-umthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho wezwe wakuqala. Lomthetho - ngokomthetho wabonisa ukuthi amaphoyisa amanani aphakeme, lapho amaphoyisa amaqembu amaqembu akhona, nemibuso ezwe elinganiselwe, imibuso ehlangene, igobe igobe igobe.

Inkathi yoshintsho yaba nokumiswa kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane ngo-1868. I-Due shod Programme Claus yathi: “Awukho uHulumeni oyophuca noma yimuphi umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho.” Emashumini eminyaka, iNkantolo Ephakeme yamelana nombono wokuthi lo mbhalo ungayihlukanisa“'ilungiselelo lokuhlukanisa” eliqondile elivela kuBill of Rights ngokumelene namazwe. Kuyi-Factern Case- Homes [1873]), ichaza ngokulinganiselwe amalungelo noma i-Immaclaus, iwususa ngokunenzuzo njengemoto. Inqubo efanelekile ye-Claussclectal kuphela njengesisekelo seNkanto ehlelekile.

Ukuzalwa kokukhetha: Gitrow v. New York [1925]

Imfundiso yanamuhla ye ekhetha ukuhlanganiswa [[FLT: 1] isuka ekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20 leminyaka, lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme iqala ukuhlola ukuthi amalungelo ayisisekelo asohlwini lwamalungelo e-Bill of Rights ayevikelwe futhi “izithakazelo ze-“impikisi”. Izehlo zamanzi zazivikelwe yiSichibiyelo seSiphendu se-14. Icala [[FLT:]] Getlow v. New York, [62], 268 U.S. 652 [1925]). Benjamin Gitlow, umthandi wezenhlalakahle, walahlwa ngaphansi kwenqubo yomthetho wobugebengu ye-New York esobala yokukhipha ukugumbulwa kukahulumeni. INkantolo yasekela ukukholelwa kwakhe — ukuthola ukuthi imposiso esobala, kodwa yamemezela “inkululeko yenkululeko, kodwa imemezela yenkululeko, phakathi kwezentengobukiso yeze yezentethe yomphakathi engcono engcono engcono."

Leyo nkulumo yayiwubuchwepheshe i-dictum (inkulumo eyashiwo ngokudlula), kodwa yabeka isisekelo sokuguqulwa komthetho-mthetho-sisekelo waseMelika. Ngokokuqala ngqá, iNkantolo yavuma ukuthi ilungelo elikhethekile elivela eSimisweni Sokuqala elisetshenziswa ezizweni. Noma kunjalo, iNkantolo ayizange isebenzise lonke iBhili yamaLungelo ngesikhathi esisodwa. Kunalokho, yaqhubeka ngecala, ngokokulungile — yingakho igama elithi “ukukhetha iSichibiyelo sokuLungisa".

Kungani “Kubalulekile” Kunokuba“ Kube Yintandokazi”?

UMahluleli uJohn Marshall Harlan (umdala) wayelwele ukuhlanganiswa okuphelele nokufakwa ngamalungelo noma ngama-Immunion Claus, kodwa umbono wakhe awuzange uqondise iningi. Kamuva, uMahluleli uHugo Black wasekela ingqikithi yokuhlanganiswa kwe-Century Proce Claus, ephikisa ngokuthi iSichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo sasihloselwe ukusebenzisa wonke uBill of Rights ezizweni. INkantolo yanqaba leyo sikhundla, ikhetha indlela yokuhlela evumela ukukhetha nokukhetha amalungelo “okuyisisekelo somthetho waseMelika.” Njengomphumela, amalungelo athile — njengeSigqi seSibili sokuHlamlanduku sokugcina izikhali — ayengafakwangafakwangakhonzi kwaze kwaba ngu-2010, kuyilapho abanye, njengoGrand Jury Claus we-Frence, engazange ikhonjwe kulolu suku.

Izenzakalo Eziyingqopha - mlando: Kusukela Ezinzisweni Zesine Kuya Kwezesithupha

Ngemva GEWW, iNkantolo yandisa kancane kancane uhlu lwamalungelo ahlanganisiwe, ikakhulukazi phakathi neNkantolo yaseWarren (1953-1969). Ngezansi kuneziphakamiso eziphawulayo ezaguqula kabusha inqubo yobugebengu kahulumeni kanye nenkululeko yomphakathi.

Mapp v.Ohio (1961): Umthetho we-Exclussion Slave Ibhekiswe e-States

Isivikelo sokuphenya okungakholekiyo nokuqulekayo., 367 U.S.61], iNkantolo yathi IsiHluvathi se-Fourth [ isivikelo sokuhlola nokuquleka okungakholekiyo — futhi umthetho osuwenziwe ngokungekho emthethweni (ukuzimela okungasetshenziswa ngokusemthethweni) — usebenza ezinkantolo zezwelo. [FLT]] , isho ukuthi ukukhululeka ngokungekho emthethweni uma imithetho yabo ikuvumela ukuba kuvunyelwe. Umthetho owe-Map (ukukhishwayo) ubufakazi obungcolile phakathi nokuhlola okungavunyelwe umthetho. INkakhulu iNkakhulu i-FOLT] [[FT] [FLT] [IT]] [IT], i-Foctivess projectived Regiontived transtived trans) inqubo egunya yomthetho e

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Ilungelo lokuyaluza

Clarence Earl Gideon, iziboshwa zaseFlorida ezimpofu, wanxusa iNkantolo Ephakeme ngenkulumo emfushane ebhalwe ngesandla ethi wayenqatshwe u-Sixtith Isichibiyeli [ iseluleko sokuqulwa kwecala. Gedeon v. IWainwright[, 372 U.S. 335 [1963]), iNkantolo yavumelana ngokuthi ilungelo lokusiza ngeseluleko ezinkantolo zobugebengu liyilungelo eliyisisekelo, elifakwe ngeSiphendulo se-1459. Elamukele ummeli wanoma iziphi izikhalo zobugebengu ezingathi sína ezibhekenenselelene. Lokhu kuveza ukuvikela obala izimiso zomphakathi ezweni lonke futhi kuhlale kusenecala lobulungisa.

[[UMTH:0] Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Ilungelo lokuhlala uthule

Mhlawumbe isici esidumile sokuhlanganisa, ilungelo lokumelana nokuzifaka ngokwakho ukuncintisana ne-Morixa v.Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (196), yasebenzisa [[[FLT:]] Fithth Isimemezelo [[[[FLT:]]] ilungelo lokumelana nokuzifaka umlomo wemvume wokufuna ukubuzwa. INkantolo ifuna amaphoyisa ukuba azise izixwayiso (isixwayiso esivamile se-Monda” ngaphambi kokuba ibuze. Isinqumo sabekwa kakhulu ngesikhathi, sigxekwa ngokugcinwa komthetho wesandla. Nokho siye safakwa kakhulu esikweni sase-Melika kangangokuba izixwayiso ziwuyindiwe kumabhayisikobho nethelevishini. [FLT:][5]

Ukumiswa Kwezinkantolo Ezengeziwe ZaseWarren

  • Isichibiyeli sokuqala:[ Inkulumo (] GEWW[), cindezela ([[FLT:]] nearbb v. Minnesota[[[FL:5]], 1931], umhlangano (]] [Jonge v. Oregon[], 1937], ukusetshenziswa kwenkolo ngesihle ([[FLT:]] Canetwell v.Connecticut[[FL:]], 1940]), ukumiswa kwenkolo ([FLT:]], ukumiswa kwezemfundo yezemfundo.[FLD:][FLP]]
  • Isichibiyeli se-XSC]: Ukwahlulela komphakathi nomphakathi ([Klopefer v. North Carolina, 1967, i-avalution engenachokoza ([[[FLT:]]]DUNT] v.Louisiana, 1968]), ukuphikisana kofakazi ([ Poctive v.Ctac. Texas[FLT], 1965]), inqubo ebophekileyo ([[FLT][FLT]]
  • Isichibiyeli sobubanzi:[ Isijeziso esinonya nesingajwayelekile ( Robinson v. California, 1962]).

I-Icorporation v. Ingqikithi Impikiswano:

IJaji uHugo Black ngokungaguquki laphikisa ngokuthi iSichibiyelo se-Access ye 14th Claus sasihloselwe ukuhlanganisa iBill of Rights ephelele emelene nezifundazwe — futhi, kungasafana. Wayekholelwa ukuthi ingqikithi ingenqabe ukuhlanganisa isigaba seSimemezelo seNkantolo “esibonisa ukuqonda” ukuhlolwa kwezengqondo. [[FLT:] [FLT] Dincan v. Louisiana (1968]), uMnyama wabhala ngoProfana: “Ngingalandela ulimi olungasholo lweSichime seSichimezi seNkathi futhi ngifake u-Bill lwamalungelo eGcineyonkelweni lwezendlalo olugcwele”.

Iningi, liholwa uMahluleli Byron White, kunalokho laqhubeka nendlela yokukhetha, lihlaziya ukubaluleka kwesokudla ngasinye esingokomlando nesiwusizo. Inkulumo - mpikiswano yaphakamisa umbuzo ojulile wefilosofi: Ingabe iNkantolo ingayifuni inkululeko, noma ingabe kufanele iphoqelele ukuba isakhiwo esifanayo sesizwe senkululeko? Ukukhetha ukukhululwa kwe-Creast Black kuphumelele usuku, kodwa ukungavumelani kweJaji Black kusenethonya. Ezinye izazi ziphikisa ngokuthi i-ad hoc, ukudala “i-clat quida” yokufakwa kwenkolo nenkululeko. Ngokwesibonelo, iSibili isiHlawuli sahlala singafakwanga kusuka ku 1791 kuze kube [FLDonald:]. [[FLT] [FLD] [FLD] , nakuba “iqikelele, i-X0] i-okeylo , nakuba i-diumberty yabekwa ngokuphambene.

Amalungelo Angenazo Izinkolo: Amaqhawe Amakhulu Nangaphezulu

Akuwona wonke amalungelo eSigqebhezana samaLungelo asetshenziswa ezifundazweni. Icala eliphawuleka kakhulu yi- Fith Reformation’s Grand Jury Clause, elidinga ukuqulwa kwecala kwezwe elingathi sína ukuze liqaliswe ngecala elikhulu lejaji. Inkantolo ephakeme ebanjwe [[FLT:] [FLT]] i-California[[FLT][FLT]] [18] [1884] [ngendlela ephakathi kwe-CY] [[5] [i-CUMFT]].[FT] ifuna ukuba i-'ult:[FT] futhi izigaba ze-out.[5]

Izithobo zanamuhla nemibuzo engaxazululwanga

Ukukhetha okukhethekile kuyaqhubeka kuthuthukisa ukuvikelwa kwamalungelo omphakathi ekhulwini lama - 21, ngokuvamile emongweni wezindaba ovamile kwakungenakwenzeka ukuba abakhiqizi balindele.

Ukuba Wedwa Namalungelo Okuzala

Ilungelo lokufihla imfihlo — nakuba lingashiwonga ngokuqondile kuyi-Bill of Rights — liye laqashelwa njengesithakazelo esivikelwe yiSichibiyelo seshumi nane. Griswold v. Connecticut[ (65]), iNkantolo yabulala ukuvinjelwa kwesizwe ekuvimbeleni ukuvimbela ukuvimbela inzalo, ukususa isinqumo sokuzala. Nakuba i-FLT: 4. [FLT] [FLT] [FLT] i-ROD, i-D, yesithathu, neyesihlanu iziNguqulo. Kamuva, [[FLT:] v.[FLT] v.[FLT] [FF: 3] [3] [eyesssss , iyakuhluka imibandela yemiyamu, kodwa imvume yokukhipha imvume yokuzala], imvume yokukhipha izimo ezikamelweni zemvume zokukhipha imvume zokuphumayo.[5], imibandela ezindaweni ezihlukene, isuke isuke isuke i - R.[3]

Isichibiyeli sesibili Ngemva [kokuQEQII] McDonald[[QUL:1]

Ukufakwa kweSichibiyelo Sesibili kuMcDonald v. Chicago [2010] inemiphumela efinyelela kude. INkantolo yathi ilungelo lokuzigcina nokuphatha izikhali zokuzivikela libalulekile futhi lisebenza kuhulumeni wendawo. Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi, izinkantolo eziphansi ziye zancintisana nomthetho - sisekelo wemithetho yokulawula izibhamu — njengokuvinjelwa kwezikhali, imingcele kamagazini, futhi ziphethe imingcele efihlekile. Inkantolo ephakeme yama-20222 yesinqumo sokuzithwala ku-New York State Rifle & Pistolson Association v. Brum[FLT] Ishondss isholor izimpawu zokuhlasela ngokubonisa izikhali ngokulandelana kwesizwe. Imithetho ebekwe inselele phambili yemithetho yeze yale.

Ukuzihlukanisa Kwamanani Nesichibiyelo Sesine

Ubuchwepheshe banamuhla buphakamisa imibuzo emisha eMthethweni wesi-45 weSichibiyelo. Carmeter v. United States (2017), iNkantolo Ephakeme yakholelwa ukuthi uhulumeni ngokuvamile udinga isiqinisekiso sokuthola indawo engokomlando yocingo — ngisho noma imininingwane yayiphethwe yi-partin yesithathu (inkampani yocingo). Isinqumo sancikekile eSichibiyelweni seSine njengese-ihlanganisiwe , kodwa sisebenzisa i-app [ist:3] emothe yolwazi olunolwazi olunolwazi olusha. Ngokufanayo, izinkantolo manje zibhekenezindaba ezifana nokusetshenziswa kwamaphoyisa amabhodi ezincwadi ezisebenza ngocingo, amaprotheni, ama-dron, kanye nama-protensition. Ukuqinisekisa ukuthi isivikelo singenakuvinje ngobuchwepheshe; ngokusebenzisa izibalo esimo somthetho somthetho.

Ilungelo Lokwenza Imisebenzi NeSichibiyelo Sokuqala

Nakuba kungewona wonke amalungelo okuvota ahlangene nelungelo elilodwa eliye lasetshenziswa ngokulungisa, iSichibiyelo sokuqala senkulumo yezombangazwe kanye nokuhlangana, esifakwe ezimweni ezifana Denge v. Oregon [1937], siye sasetshenziselwa ukushaya imithetho kahulumeni evimbela ukufinyelela noma ukuvimbela imali yezezimali zezezombangazwe. Ngokwesibonelo, [[FLT:]] [FLT]] u-United. FONT[FLT][3] [20: 0] Icala lombuso — iSishaya umthetho oweSigqi — iSigqi sisebenzisa imingcele encishisiwe ekuqedeni imingcele esemthethweni yezentengosi esemthethweni yezombangazwe. Isinqumo sisebenza ngokufanayo ukuveza imithetho ngaphansi kokucabanga okufanayo. [FLT], [FT] Fittenst] [Flective Livence] [ectivement: [20] Isivikelo sezethu], ngokungafaniyo, ngokulingana nezindawo ezifaneleyo, ngokukhipha ezifaneleyo, ngokuhambisana nezingayo.

Izici Nokulinganiselwa Kokukhetha

Naphezu kwempumelelo yayo, ukuhlanganisa ngokukhethayo kuye kwabangela ukugxekwa. Abanye baphikisa ngokuthi indlela yokuthatha i-metal iye yaholela ekuvikelekeni okungavumelani: kungani ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala lomthetho ezicaleni zomphakathi (iSichibiyelo seshumi nambili) lingahlanganisiwe ngokugcwele, kuyilapho ilungelo lokululeka (ISichibiyelo seSixwethe) liyi? Ukuthembela kweNkantolo “kulungana okungokombono wengqondo” kuye kwabekwa icala lokuzithoba — ukubonakaliswa kwezindinganiso zamahluleli kunokubaluleka kokuqala komthetho wemithetho yesonto. Abashisekeli benkolo abanjengo-Clarence Thomas Thomas basekela ukuhlanganiswa kwe- Priges noma i-Immation Claus , esikhundleni salokhu okungaveza amalungelo ahlukile (kuhlanganisa nesilinganiso somthetho kanye nesilinganiso sokuhamba).

Enye inkokhelo igxile ekusebenziseni ukuthatha i-federalism : ukuhlanganisa ngokukhethayo kunamandla abekwe eWashington, ukunciphisa ikhono lezifunda ukuba zizame imibuso ehlukene engokomthetho. Izibalo azikwazi ukuvumela ukuphenywa okungenamvumelwayo okungavunyelwa ngaphansi komthetho kahulumeni kodwa okuphula iSichibiyelo sesine. Abaxhasi bemithetho yomthetho baphikisa ukuthi ukuvumelana kwenkathi yangaphambi kwe-incorporation kuvunyelwe ukuba kwenziwe inqubo yobugebengu ezindinganisweni zendawo. Nokho, i-tenargument — engenziwa ngemposiso yiNkanto eyisisekelo yeNkanto engathi akufanele kube yiyo ebekwa phansi kwezendaweni enkulu; impela akuyona into elungile uma inkathi evunyelwe ukuba i-mongokwasekugcineni.

Isiphetho: Ifa Eliqhubekayo

Ukuhlanganiswa kwenqubo ngokuyisisekelo kufunyaniswe futhi kumiswe kabusha i-manualism nesivikelo samalungelo abantu ngabanye. Ngokusebenzisa kancane kancane iBill of Rights kumazwe, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yakha isitezi esifanayo senkululeko yesizwe — iphansi eliqhubeka liphakama lapho kuvela amacala amasha nobuchwepheshe. Kodwa inqubo ayikaqedi. INkantolo ayikalawuli ukuthi [[FFF: 0]] Ivikela i-Expreme i-Clate [[[F]] ifaka izinqanyuko zejele eziyisishiyagalombili (ayisidingo sokuvikela isivikelo esilinganayo, njengoba isebenza ngokuqondile ukuba izikhulu zikahulumeni zihlale zikhona), kodwa imingcele yamalungelo asele ikhona: Ingabe iSikhawu sivikela ilungelo lokuphatha izibhamu? [F] [F3] [5] [5], futhi inciphenye i-F: [F] [F]

Lemfundiso ivumelana nokuvumelana noMthetho-sisekelo. Kunokuba bamise imingcele eqinile yombuso ngo-1868, abahleli beSichibiyelo seshumi nane bakha “inqubo esheshayo” evumelanayo iNkantolo eye yayisebenzisa ekufakeni ukuphila kuyiBill of Rights. Njengoba ushintsho lomphakathi, ukuhlanganisa okukhethayo kuqinisekisa ukuthi inkululeko eyisisekelo yokukhuluma, inkolo, i-media, inqubo yobugebengu, kanye nemfihlo kuhlala kuphoqelelwe kuzo zonke izingalo zikahulumeni. Yingakho lemfundiso iyaqhubeka ithuthukisa amalungelo omphakathi omphakathi wanamuhla — futhi kungani iyohlala iyingxenye ebalulekile yomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo waseMelika wezizukulwane ezizayo.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, bheka i-Oyez Project on Incorporation Doctrine ne Inkonzo yokucwaninga ebhalweni ngeSichibiyelo se 145 seNdlela ka Claus .