Isingeniso

Ubuhlobo phakathi komthetho nokugcinwa komthetho buyisisekelo somthetho wanamuhla we-polishi e-United States. Umthetho wezomthetho, owezinqumo zecala ezivela ezinkantolo zikahulumeni nezezwe, umisa izincazelo eziqinile zezimiso, amalungiselelo omthetho, nemithetho esemthethweni. Kubaphathi abamisa umthetho, ukuqonda lezi zinqumo akuyona imfuneko engokomthetho engokomthetho. Ukumiswa kwezimoto, ukuphenywa kwemithetho, ukuphenywa kwecala, noma ukusetshenziswa kwempoqo kucutshunyushwa ngokumelene nezimiso ezimiswe yinkantolo. Lesi sihloko sihlola indlela icala elibheka ngayo inqubo yomthetho ngosuku nosuku, inqubo edlulisela izinguquko ezingokomthetho ensimini, nezinselele ezibhekene ngokomthetho. Ngokuhlola imithetho engokomthetho nezindlela zayo ezisebenzayo, siqokomisa ukuthi kungani umyalo oqinile ubalulekile, umthetho we-bukhosha, umthetho we-mthetho we-bukhostrustment, nomthetho.

Ukuqonda Umthetho Wecala

Umthetho wecala ubhekisela equlweni lomthetho owenziwe ngabahluleli lapho benquma izimpikiswano ngazinye. Ngokungafani nomthetho wemithetho, omiswe yizishaya-mthetho, uma kuthethwa ukuthi umthetho uguqula ngokuguqula ngemfundiso ye stare decis[ . `isimiso sokuthi izinkantolo kufanele zilandele izinkantolo ezinqunyiwe ngaphambili. Lesi simiso siqinisekisa ukungaguquguquki nokubikezela, ukuvumela izikhulu ukuba zithembele eziqondisweni ezimisiwe lapho ziqhuba imisebenzi yazo.

Imithombo Yomthetho Wecala

Umthetho usuka ezinhlalweni eziningi zesimiso sokwahlulela. Inkantolo ePhakeme yase-U.S. izinqumo ezibopha zonke izinkantolo zikahulumeni nezesifunda. Izinkantolo zikahulumeni ezisezantsi (izinkantolo zecala lesifunda nezinkantolo zesifunda) futhi izinkantolo eziphakeme ziveza izimpawu ezithinta ukugcinwa komthetho phakathi kwezindawo zazo. Ngokwesibonelo, isinqumo esivela eSikhungweni Sokudlulisa Izingcingo seSikhulu se-Ampepho sase-Ninthrast Court of Appers siyothinta izikhulu zaseCalifornia, e-Oregon, nakwamanye amazwe asentshonalanga, kuyilapho inkantolo yaseTexas Court of Crimialgins Applies ithwelects ithwele ubunzima kulelozwe. Amacala akhethekile asebenza esifundeni sawo.

Indlela Umthetho Ophathelene Necala Ohluke Ngayo Emithethweni

Imithetho imiswe yimithetho elotshiwe edluliswa yiSishaya-mthetho noma izishaya-mthetho zikahulumeni, kuyilapho umthetho uchaza lezozimiso noMthetho-sisekelo. Ngokwesibonelo, umbhalo weSichibiyelo sesine owenqabela “ukuphenya okungenangqondo nokuquleka” ushiya igumbi lokuchaza. Umthetho ugcwele imininingwane: yini eyimbangela engenzekayo? Uma isikhulu kumelwe sithole isiqinisekiso? Imithetho yecala enjenge-pametal [[FLD:]] Katz v. United States[FLT:] (1967) yaveza ukuthi “ukulindela okunengqondo kwendawo eyimfihlo” kunquma ukuthi ingabe kudingeka yini isiqinisekiso, ukuhlola ezinkonzweni zempahla kuya esimweni somuntu siqu. Lokhu kuboniswa phakathi komthetho nencazelo yokwahlulela kugxeka izikhulu ezisebenzisa ulimi olungokomthetho ezimweni eziqondenezemthetho.

Indima Yezandulela

I-precedent iyinjini yomthetho wecala. Isibonelo siyisimiso somthetho noma umthetho izinkantolo eziwusebenzisayo njengendinganiso ezicatshangelweni ezilandelayo ezihilela amaqiniso afanayo. isibonelo esibophayo senkantolo ephakeme [ kumelwe silandelwe izinkantolo eziphansi phakathi kwegunya elifanayo, ukuqinisekisa ukusebenza okufanayo komthetho. Isibonelo esilandelanayo [, ngesinye isandla, ivela kwezinye izifunda zezindawo noma izinkantolo eziphansi futhi ingazisangagunyaza isinqumo kodwa ingasigunyazi.

Ukukhohlisa Kwezinkwenkwezi

IStarde decisis − isiLatin segama elithi “ukuma ngezinto ezinqunyiwe” .Inza kube nokuzinza. Uma iNkantolo Ephakeme inquma icala elinjengo . UMendanda v. I-Arizona [66], zonke izishayamthetho zokuqapha kwesizwe kumelwe zilungise izinqubo zazo. [i-Murda] umthetho wawudinga izikhulu zokusola amalungelo azo okuthulisa nokululeka phambi kokuphenya kwemvume. Lesi sibonelo siye sacwengwa yizindaba zamuva Bhogkins] [flut:] [FLT] [2010], okumelwe zicaze zicalule isikhululo sawo sokuthula.

Ithonya Lezilokazane

  • Imithetho yenkantolo engaphezulu: Ukubopheka kuzo zonke izinkantolo eziphansi nokugcinwa komthetho ezweni lonke.
  • Inkantolo yesifunda: Ukubopha phakathi kuleyo-sethi; kungakholisa kwenye indawo.
  • Isimo seNkantolo Ephakeme: Ukubopheka eqenjini lomthetho kahulumeni nasezinkantolo zikahulumeni eziphansi.
  • Ikhomu lesifunda: Ukuxhumanisa kuphela phakathi kulesosigodi; ngokuvamile kuxhomeke ezinqumweni zesifunda.

Ithonya Emikhubeni Yokuphoqelelwa Komthetho

Umthetho wecala uthonya ngokuqondile amasu, ukuqeqeshwa, nezimiso zezinhlangano eziqinisekisa ukugcinwa komthetho.

Ukufuna Nokusimama

ISichibiyelo sesine siyisici esinemithetho yobugebengu ebekwe ngamacala ezindawo eziphansi aye amisa imithetho eyinkimbinkimbi elawula isikhathi nendlela izikhulu ezingase zifune ngayo abantu, izimoto, izindlu, nemishini yezobuchwepheshe.

  • Terry v.O. (1968): yabhalwa kafushane uphengululo namaphathishi alinganiselwe asekelwe ekukrobeni okunengqondo, hhayi ngokugcwele okungabangela. Lesi sinqumo sinika izikhulu ikhono lokumisa-fulls, kodwa izimo ezilandelayo ezifana Illinois v. Wardlow[ [2000]) isithikatha uhlelo lwaso, idinga amaqiniso athile akhethekile.
  • United States v. Jones (202): Ukubopha i-GPS ngomthumeli emotweni kuhlanganisa ukuseshwa ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo sesine, okudinga isiqinisekiso. Lokhu kwathinta kakhulu imikhuba yokuhlola futhi kwakhuthaza izinhlangano ukuba zisebenzise izimiso zokulandelela imishini.
  • Caroll v. United States (1925): Ukumisa imoto engaphandle(iposi): Abaqondisi-moto bangasesha imoto ngaphandle kophawu oluyikhombayo uma kungenzeka ukuthi bakholelwa ukuthi iqukethe ukuvinjwa. Lokhu kuhlala kuyitshe legumbi lokuhlola ukuma kwezimoto.

Izimfuneko Ezinhle Nezihlukile

Nakuba imvume ivame ukudingeka ekuhloleni, umthetho uqophe izivumelwano eziningi: imvume, umbono ocacile, izimo ezicazululiwe, isenzakalo sokubopha, nokuhlola uhlu. Ukukhetha ngakunye kuchazwe ngemithetho ethile. Ngokwesibonelo, iChimel v. California [1969] [isenzakalo sokuhlola esilinganiselwe sokubopha umuntu nendawo engaphansi kokulawula komthumbi. Abaphathi-mikhosi kumelwe basebenzise le mibono ngokunembile ukuze bagweme ukunqanda ubufakazi.

Izindlela Zokuxoxa

[[NTLT:0] uMenda v. i-Arizona isalokhu inselele edumile yokuphenywa ngecala. Isinqumo sidinga ukuba kucaciswe ukuthi uvalelwe ejele ngaphambi kokubuza. Kamuva izinqumo ziye zacwengisiswa lapho iMiranda izixwayiso zidingeka futhi yini eyenza i-activer. Missouri v. [[FLT][FLT][200]] [2004], iNkantolo ilahla “icebo” lapho izikhulu zibuza ngamabomu ngaphandle kwesixwayiso, bese zinikeza ngemva kokuvuma izono, ukuthola isivikelo sesibili. Izindlela ezinjalo manje azithembekile kakhulu. Ngokuhlanganisa, [FLT:] FFFFF][FFF][5]

Ukusetshenziswa Kwamandla

Ukusetshenziswa kwamandla mhlawumbe kuyindawo elandela kakhulu lapho umthetho ubeka khona imingcele. Isibonelo esiyinhloko yi-Graham v.Connor (1998), eyamisa indinganiso eqinile". Izinkantolo zihlola izenzo zesikhulu ngokombono wesikhulu esinengqondo esisendaweni, zicabangela ubungako bobugebengu, ukuthi osolwayo usongela ngokushesha, nokuthi usola umelana noma uyabaleka yini. Lendinganiso isebenza enkantolo-katsebe-kasesicathu, futhi ngisho nezinqumo ezihlukene zesophazamini ziyahlolisiswa.

  • I-Tannessee v. Garner (1985): Kwathathwa ukusetshenziswa kwamandla abulalayo ukuze kuvinjelwe ukuphuma kwe-odoctive esolekayo, engeyona ingozi ebalekelayo. Lesinqumo saphoqelela izinhlangano ukuba zilungise izimiso zokudubula ezimotweni ezihambayo futhi zibalekele izisulu.
  • Kisilela v. Hughes (2018): INkantolo yamuva nje ePhakeme ngesinqumo ngasinye isho ukuthi isiqinisekiso sokuvikeleka esimweni sokusetshenziswa kwempoqo, igcizelela ukuthi izikhulu ziyavikelwa ngaphandle kokuba isiqalo esikhona sifaka ukwephulwa kusobala.
  • I-Body Camera traffage: Icala elinjenge amachashaza v. Idolobha lasePhiladelphia [202] [1] libhale ukutholakala komphakathi ekuqoshweni kwekhamera eqoshiwe, ilinganise ukukhanya nendawo eyimfihlo ye-opencation.

Ukuma Kwezimoto Nokuhlola Izimoto

Ukumiswa kwezimoto kuyindlela evame kakhulu yokuxhumana kwamaphoyisa, futhi umthetho uyilawula kakhulu. Whren v. United States (1996]) wakholelwa ukuthi noma ikuphi ukwephulwa kwezimoto kunikeza isizathu esilindelekile sokumisa imoto, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi inhloso yesikhulu yokuma kwemoto. Lokhu kuye kwagxekwa kakhulu ngokwenza ukuba isikhashana sinqandwe ukuqhumuka kwabashayeli abambalwa. Lokhu kuthathe izinqumo ezifana Rodguez v. United States [20] [20]

Ukuqeqeshwa Nokuthuthukiswa Kwezimiso Zokusebenza

Umthetho wecala ushintsha ngokushesha, futhi izinhlangano eziqinisekisa ukugcinwa komthetho kumelwe ziguqule izinqumo zokwahlulela zibe ukuqeqeshwa nezimiso ezisebenzayo. UMnyango Wezobulungisa nezinhlangano zikahulumeni zivame ukunikeza izinqubo zokulingisa ngemva kwesinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme, kodwa ukujwayela kudinga abaqondisi abangokomthetho abanikezelwe kanye nezinhlangano zokuqeqesha.

Imfundo Eqhubekayo Engokomthetho

Izifundazwe eziningi zigunyaza ukuqeqeshwa kwaminyaka yonke okuhlanganisa nokushintshwa komthetho. Abaphathi bamuva bahlola izinqumo zenkantolo, bahlanganyele ekuziqeqesheleni okusekelwe ezibonelweni, futhi babhale ukuhlola ukuze baqinisekise ukuqonda. Ngokwesibonelo, ngemva Rodriguez[, izinhlangano eziningi zibukeze imithetho yazo yokuyeka ukushayela futhi ziqeqeshe ukunikeza izinsolo ezinengqondo zokuthiya ukunqamuka. Ngaphandle kokuzilungisa okunjalo, izikhulu zifaka engozini isibopho somphakathi kanye nokugobeka ubufakazi.

Ukusetshenziswa Kobuchwepheshe Ekuqeqesheni

Intuthuko ekufezekeni cishe (VR) kanye nokulingisa kuvumela izikhulu ukuba zisebenzise ukusabela ezimweni eziguqulayo zomthetho. Umkhondo weVR ungabeka isikhulu esimweni esiphezulu sokusebenzisa isivinini isimo esisetshenziswa izibuko Graham[ izici, kanye nokutshelwa ngokushesha. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ama-patrol nama-apps (njenge-Lexipol noma amandla) anikeza inqubo yangempela yokulungisa nemininingwane engokomthetho, isiza izikhulu ukuba zihlale zinolwazi lapho zisesaphendukile.

Izincwadi Zemithetho Nemithetho Evunyelwe

Uma kutholakala indlela yezenzo ezingekho ngokomthetho, iDOJ ingamisa umthetho odinga ukukhonzwa kwabemi abaningi. Ngokwesibonelo, izinqumo zemvume emadolobheni anjenge Baltimore, Ferguson, neSeattle zigunyaza ukusetshenziswa okusha kwezimiso ezisebenza ngokusebenza ngempoqo, ukuqeqeshwa kwezinkinga, nokuqoqwa kwemiyalo yokwaziswa. Lemiyalo ngokuvamile ihlanganisa izindinganiso zomthetho zamuva, iphoqelela izinhlangano ukuba zigunyaze ukugcinwa okungokomthetho.

Umthetho Wecala Nobuhlobo Bomphakathi

Ukuvumelana nomthetho wecala kuyisisekelo somthetho wamaphoyisa. Uma imiphakathi iqaphela ukuthi izikhulu zihlonipha imingcele yomthetho-sisekelo, ukwethembana kuyakha. Ngokuphambene, ukwephulwa okusobala, njengokungagunyazi ukulandelela i-GPS noma ukuphenya okungenamthetho.

Ukubona Kahle Nokulandisa

Umthetho wecala futhi ulawula indlela izinhlangano okumelwe zisingathe ngayo ukuziphatha okubi nemibhalo egunyaziwe. Brady v. Maryland (1963), abashushisi kumelwe baveze ubufakazi bokudlulisa icala. Lokhu kudluliselwe ekubekeni umthetho ngokulawula [[FLT:]] uhlu [izikhundla] ezikhomba ukuthembeka kwazo kumele ziboniswe. Izikhulu zikahulumeni manje zidingeka ukuba zigcine futhi zihlanganyele izinhlu ezinjalo, umkhuba owenziwe ngomthetho. Ikhamera yezinyawo, okumelwe ihlulelwe emibhalweni yomphakathi, ukuveza ukubonakala nokuvumela izimiso zomthetho ukuba zisetshenziswe kanjani.

Izindinganiso Ezingokomthetho Nezezinsimbi Eziphelele

Nakuba umthetho ungakudingi ngokuqondile ukucwasana, izinqumo zezokuvikela nokukhipha i-orflifial ezilinganayo ziye zathonya isimiso. Floyd v. City of New York (2013) wakholelwa ukuthi ukuyeka kwe-WYPD nokuziqeqesha kwamasiko okungahambisani nokungavumelani kweSichibiyelo sesine ngenxa yokungaphathi kahle kwemithetho yesizwe. Lendaba yaholela kumphathi wezwe, inguquko yesimiso, nokuqeqeshwa kwesizwe ngemithetho elawula imingcele ekhululekile. Manje i-Awactive i-rectory esemthethweni ngokuqeqeshwa okuhambisana nokuncintisana kwezimiso zokugcinwa kwemithetho.

Izinselele Ekusebenziseni Umthetho Wamacala

Naphezu kokubaluleka okusobala kwezandulela zokwahlulela, ukuzihumushela ekusebenzeni okungaguquguquki ensimini kunezithiyo ezinkulu.

Ukulinganiselwa Kwemithombo Yezinto

Izinhlangano ezincane nasemaphandleni ngokuvamile azinazo iziphathi-mali ezinikezelwe ezingokomthetho noma izikhokhelo zemali. Zingathembela ekuqeqesheni okugunyazwe uhulumeni okwenzeka ngonyaka, kushiyeke izinyanga zesikhathi lapho umthetho ushintsha khona. Ubuchwepheshe bokuthenga noma ukukhokhela ukushintshwa okubanzi okungokomthetho kungacindezela imali elinganiselwe. Ngenxa yalokho, izikhulu kulezi zinkampani zingase zingajwayeleni kakhulu nemithetho yamuva, izingozi ezikhulayo zomphakathi.

Ukumelana Nokushintsha

Impucuko yokugcinwa komthetho ingamelana nemingcele emisha, ikakhulukazi uma izikhulu zibheka ukubusa njengokuvimbela ukuvinjelwa kobugebengu. Ngokwesibonelo, ngemva Miranda[, izikhulu eziningi ekuqaleni zazingamelana nokuvumelana, zikholelwa ukuthi zingavimbela ukuvuma izono. Ukunqoba lokhu kudinga ukuqondisa okuqinile, ukuxhumana okucacile kwesimiso somthetho, nokugcinwa okungaguquguquki. Izikhulu zomlando we-“warrior” impucuko ingazama ukwamukela izindlela zomphakathi ezigunyaziwe ngokomthetho.

Ukuyinkimbinkimbi Nokuqina

Amanye amacala adala imibuzo eminingi kunempendulo. Ngokwesibonelo, isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme i-Carbate v. i-United States (2088) yakholelwa ukuthi ukufinyelela ezindaweni ezingokomlando zengqamuzana kuyadingeka isiqinisekiso, kodwa ishiya imibuzo evulekile mayelana nokuthola imikhondo yangempela, izilahlo zezakhiwo, nemfundiso yesithathu. Abaphathi nabashushisi kumelwe bahambe ngezindawo ezimpunga kuze kuchazwe kabusha umthetho. Lokhu kungaholela emikhubeni eguquguqukayo nasezinseleleni engokomthetho.

Ukucindezela Kwezombangazwe

Abameli nabaphathi bamaphoyisa abaqashelwe bangabhekana nokucindezela kwezombangazwe ukuba bamukele amasu anzima okuphoqelela aphikisana nomthetho wecala. Ukushaya ucingo “ukuphoxa” ebugebenguni obuthile kungaholela ekunqanyulweni noma ekufuneni uphengululo olungaphula isilinganiso [ noma iSichibiyelo sesine]. Ukulinganisela izicelo zomphakathi ngokulalela umthetho kuyinselele eqhubekayo kumholi wezinhlangano.

Ukuthambekela Kwesikhathi Esizayo

Njengoba ubuchwepheshe bushintsha, umthetho uyoqhubeka umisa ukugcinwa komthetho ezindaweni ezinjengokuhlakanipha kokwenziwa, ukuqashelwa kobuso, nokungafihli lutho.

  • Ukusetshenziswa kobudoda: Ukusetshenziswa kwamaphoyisa ukuqaphela ubuso kuye kwabangela ukumangalelwa ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo sesine nemithetho yezesayensi yezobuchwepheshe. Icala elinjenge ACLU v. Crepeview AI [201] ibekela inselele ukulahlwa okungenasizathu kwezithombe zomphakathi.
  • Ilayisensi ezenzekelayo ye-Plate bafundi (ALPR): Izinkantolo zihlukene ngokuthi i-GPR yendabuko ye-ALPR iphulula ubumfihlo. Isifunda sesine, eUnited States v. Thompson[[FL:3] [2023]), sasekela ukuthi i-GPS engapheliyo i-GPS i-mkhondo wezinsuku ezingu-60 iwuphenyo, okunganwetshwa kuyo i-alPR program.
  • Sacial Media Monitor:[ INkantolo Ephakeme ayikawunqumeli umthetho-sisekelo wokuhlola izikhundla zezezezokuxhumana zomphakathi womphakathi ukuze kutholakale ubufakazi, kodwa izinkantolo eziphansi seziqalile ukusebenzisa imfundiso yengxenye yesithathu, nemiphumela exubile.
  • Usetshenziswa kwe-Al: Imithetho-mithetho ebikezela ubugebengu obunamachashaza ashisayo noma itusa izindlela zokugada i-parted iphakamisa ukukhathazeka ngobandlululo nangeSichibiyelo sesine “ukusola okuhlukaniswe.” Umthetho wesikhathi esizayo ungadinga ukuba sobala futhi usebenze ngokwawo amathuluzi anjalo.
  • I-Deta Reta kanye nokuhlanganyela: Izimo zisikisela kakhulu ukuthi ukuhlanganiswa kwemininingwane yemininingwane ezifundeni ngezindawo ezisemfashinini. Izihloko ezinjenge United States v. Jones[ [[FLT]] ne[FLT]K [[FLT:] [FLT]] isikisela ukuthi ukuhlanganiswa kwemininingwane yemininingwane ngesikhathi kungakha ukuseshwa, kudinga izicelo zokufinyelela.

Izinhlangano eziqapha umthetho kumelwe zihileleke ngokuqhubekayo kulokhu kuthambekela ngokuthuthukisa izimiso ezihlonipha ukuzifihla lapho zisebenzisa ubuchwepheshe obuqand ’ ikhanda ukuze zivikele umphakathi. Ukuhlanganyela ekuqasheni i - anicus shop nokuxoxa nochwepheshe bezomthetho kuyosiza ekuhleleni umthetho wecala esikhathini esizayo.

Isiphetho

Umthetho onamandla nonegunya oguqula izimiso zomthetho-sisekelo zibe yiziqondiso eziqinile ezisebenzayo zomthetho. Kusukela ezidingweni ze Miranda izixwayiso eziqondene nendinganiso yenjongo ye Graham[, izinqumo zokwahlulela ezilawulayo ezilawula imingcele yokuziphatha okwamukelekayo. Ukuhlala u-pane kudinga imfundo eqhubekayo, ukuthuthuka kwezimiso eziqinile, kanye nempucuko ezisa ukubaluleka kokulinganisela okungokomthetho. Njengoba ubuchwepheshe namathemba aphakathi kwezinkantolo nomthetho kuzakuvela, ukudlondlolonga kuphela. Abaphathi, abaphathi, nabasemahhovisi emthetho kumelwe basebenze ndawonye ukuze baqinisekise ukuthi zonke izenzo ezithathwe emkhankalweni ezisemthethweni.