Isingeniso: UMthetho - sisekelo Njengencwadi Ephilayo Yokulingana

UMthetho-sisekelo we-United States, owagunyazwa ngo-1788, umane uyipulani eqinile kahulumeni, iyincwadi ephilayo echaza futhi ilungise imingcele yokulingana kwezinhlanga nabesilisa. Ngokuyekelela okuyekelelayo okubangela ukumiswa kokulungisa ukuqedwa kokuqeda leso simiso nokunikeza i-suffgence, uMthetho-sisekelo uye waba yisithiyo kanye nemoto yamalungelo omphakathi. Ukuqonda le mfundiso yokuziphendukela kwemvelo ibalulekile kubafundi, nezakhamuzi ezifuna ukuqonda indlela umthetho womthetho-mthetho olawula ngayo ukulwa nobulungisa. Lesi sihloko sihlola isihluthulelo somlando, ukumiswa kwemithetho ephakeme, izinkantolo eziphetheyo, nezimpikiswano zanamuhla ezichaza indima ye-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho ehlanganisa ubuhlanga nobulili.

Umlando: Umsunguli Weqembu Lohlanga Nohlanga

Abakhi boMthetho-sisekelo benza lencwadi phakathi nenkathi lapho ubugqila babugxile ngokomthetho nangokomnotho. Izifunda zaseNingizimu zagcizelela isivikelo salenhlangano, okwaholela ekwakheni amalungiselelo amaningana alulaza ngokuqondile umqondo wokulingana kwembulunga yonke.

Amashumi Amathathu Amathathu Ayekethisa Nokuhweba Ngezigqila

ISiphakamiso I, iSigaba 2, u-Claus 3 − saziwa ngokuthi i-Finths 3 iyayenqabela, / bethi bayizigqila abantu abathathu ngezinjongo zomuntu zokumelelwa nokukhokha intela. Leli lungiselelo lanika amazwe aseNingizimu amandla ezombangazwe angenakulinganiswa kuyilapho ephika abantu ukuba babe yizigqila. Ngaphezu kwalokho, iSiphakamiso I, iSiphakamiso 9 sazenqabela ukungeniswa kwabantu abagqilaziwe kuze kube ngo-1888. Laba bahlehla bafaka isigaba sobuhlanga esiphezulu eMthethweni.

Isimo Sabesifazane Emthethweni Wokuqala

UMthetho-sisekelo wokuqala wawungenaso isivikelo esicacile samalungelo abesifazane. Imfundiso yomthetho evamile yokufihla, ekhishwe eNgilandi, yamisa abesifazane abashadile ngaphansi kwabayeni babo. Abesifazane babengenakuvota, bathathe isikhundla, noma bakhonze emajajini. Ukuthula koMthetho-sisekelo ngokomthetho ngokuphumelelayo kwashiya lokhu kungalingani kusemthetho wezwe, lapho bahlala khona bengaxoshwa isikhathi esingaphezu kwekhulu leminyaka.

Ukuqothulwa KwamaMelika Omdabu

ISiphakamiso I, isiqephu sesibili sabala ukuthi “amaNdiya awakhokhiswanga intela” njengehlukile kubantu abavamile, ebakhipha ekumeleni. Umthetho-sisekelo wawubheka izizwe zomdabu zaseMelika njengezizwe zangaphandle ngezinjongo zesivumelwano, hhayi njengengxenye yomzimba. Lokhu kwabeka iqophelo lokukhishwa kwezindawo nokubekwa imingcele engokomthetho emakhulwini amaningi eminyaka.

Izinqumo Zokuvuselela: Ukumisa Inkululeko Ngokusha

IMpi Yombango kanye nomphumela wayo kwaletha izinguquko ezibaluleke kakhulu zomthetho-sisekelo ezihlobene nokulingana kwezinhlanga. IziNguqulo zeshumi elinesithathu, zeshumi elinesine neshumi elinesihlanu ezazenziwa ngokulandelana njengeZiphendulo ze-Reconstructions() zahloselwe ukuqeda ubugqila, ukumisa ubuzwe, nokuvikela amalungelo okuvota kubantu abaNsundu. Lokhu kulungisa ngokuyisisekelo kwaguqula ubuhlobo phakathi kukahulumeni wombuso namalungelo abantu ngabanye.

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nesithathu (1865)

Igunyazwe ngemva kweMpi Yombango, iSichibiyelo seshumi nantathu saqeda ubugqila nokugqilazwa ngaphandle kwesijeziso sobugebengu. “Isigqebhezana secala” siye saphikiswana, njengoba sivumela amazwe ukuba asebenzise iziboshwa ezilula futhi, kamuva, ukuboshwa kwabantu abaningi ukuze aqhubekisele phambili ukulawula uhlanga. Naphezu kwale nkinga, ukunqanyulwa kwaphawula umthetho wokuqala ocacile owenqabela ukuhlukaniswa kwesizwe. Ukubheka ngokujule kakhulu ukuqedwa kombhalo nomlando, kuthinta izinqolobane zesizwe.

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane (1868)

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane leminyaka siyilungiselelo elibaluleke kakhulu lomthetho-sisekelo lokulingana. I-Civilization yaso u-Claus yanikeza bonke abantu abazalwa noma abadaliweyo e-United States imvume yokugumbuqela isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme kaDwede Scott. I-Uncimente Protection Clausle iyalela ukuphika noma ubani ongaphansi kwabo “isivikelo esilinganayo semithetho.” Lo msuka wawuyisisekelo sawo wonke amalungelo ayinhloko omphakathi, kusukela ekuncishisweni kwesikole kuya ekulinganani. I-Cective Proces Claus, i-prese, isetshenziswa ekuhlanganiseni amalungelo ayisisekelo amelene namazwe, kuhlanganise nenkululeko yomthetho.

Ukulinganiselwa Nezincazelo Zokuqala

Naphezu kolimi lwayo olubanzi, iSichibiyelo seshumi nane sasichazwa kancane yiNkantolo Ephakeme amashumi amaningi eminyaka. Icala leNdlu [1873], iNkantolo yasibekela imingcele enkulu kakhulu impumelelo, futhi Pnet v v. Ferguson [1896], yaphakamisa igebethi yezinhlanga ngaphansi kwemfundiso “elinganayo. Ithatha cishe ikhulu leminyaka leNsikhuselo esilinganayo sika Claus ukuze iqaphele isithembiso sayo.

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nanhlanu (1870)

ISichibiyelo seshumi elinesihlanu savimbela ohulumeni bakahulumeni bakahulumeni bakahulumeni nohulumeni ukuba banqabe ilungelo lokuvota izakhamuzi elisekelwe “kuhlobo, ibala, noma kusebugqileni bangaphambili.” Nakuba ukuphumelela kwengqopha - mlando, ukubuyiselwa akuqinisekisanga ukukhokhwa kwendawo yonke, kodwa kwavumela amazwe ukuba afake intela yokuvota, ukuhlola kokufunda nokunye ukuhlukanisa. Abesifazane, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi uhlanga lunjani, bahlala bekhishwe. Ukubuyiselwa kwaleshwa kakhulu ekupheleni kwe-Reconnon ngobudlova nange-chicanery engokomthetho, okwaholela ekuphoqeleni kwekhulu leminyaka lokukhokha izintela zokukhothoza, ukuhlola nokubhala. Abesifazane, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi bangaba yiluphi uhlanga, basuswa.

ISichibiyelo Se - 19 Nempi Yokulingana Kwezinhlanga

Ukulwela ukulwa kwabesifazane kwaqala esikhathini eside ngaphambi kweMpi Yombango kodwa kwathola amandla ekupheleni kwekhulu le-19. ISichibiyelo seSikhamiso Seshumi Nesishiyagalolunye, sagunyazwa ngo-1920, ekugcineni senqabela imingcele esekelwe ebulilini. Isigwebo sokulungisa umbhalo (ukukhipha isigwebo) sodwa () seminyaka engamashumi amaningi yokuthatha isigwebo, ukuboshwa, nokudela okwakwenza kwaba nokwenzeka. Abaholi abanjengoSusan B. Anthony, uElizabeth Cady Stanton, noAlice Paul bahlela imikhanka yokhetho, imikhankatho yokuvo, nokuhlasela inxanxanxanxanxanxa neyamathela yeSishaya - ngokomthetho.

Imiphumela Nemingcele YeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nesishiyagalolunye

ISichibiyelo seshumi elinesishiyagalolunye sakhubazeka izigidi zabesifazane, kodwa asizange sikuqede ukucwaswa kwabesifazane emacaleni noma emphakathini. Abesifazane babesabhekene nemingcele engokomthetho yempahla, imisebenzi, nenkululeko yokuzala. Ngaphezu kwalokho, abesifazane abaningi abanemibala ehlukahlukene (ngokukodwa) baseMelika, e-Asia, nase-Afrikaan , baqhubeka bebhekene nemingcele yokuvota ngenxa yeminye imithetho yokucwasa. Ukulungisa inqubo yokulahla abesilisa nabesifazane kwakuyisinyathelo esibaluleke kakhulu, kodwa kwakumane nje kuseqalile uhambo olude lokufinyelela ekulinganani ngokuphelele ubulili.

ISichibiyelo Samalungelo Alinganayo Esingagunyaziwe: Impikiswano Eqhubekayo

Kuqale kwahlongozwa ngo-1923, i-Uncimence Rights Amenument Rights Amereka (ERA) yayiyoqinisekisa ngokucacile ukuthi amalungelo alinganayo angokomthetho kubo bonke abantu baseMelika kungakhathaliseki ubulili. Ukulungisa kwadlula uMkhandlu ngo-1972 kodwa kwawa amazwe amathathu ahluleka ukuhlanganisa inkathi yonyaka ka-1982. Eminyakeni yamuva nje, i-Nevada, i-Illinois, ne-Virginia yagunyaza i-ERA, iphakamisa imibuzo yokuthi ingabe inkathi yokugcinwa kwezinsuku zokugcinwa kwemithetho yesivumelwano ingavusenezelwe. Impikiswano eqhubekayo iqokomisa ukwehlukana okujulile kwendima yomthetho evikela ubulili obulinganayo. Abamele ukuphikisa i-ERA kunikeza isisekelo esiqinile se-snicrignodina, nakuba abaphiniciswanayo kakade inikeza isivikelo ngokwanele ngencazelo enjenge [FLD [FL:] v[FF] [2] [FF] [2]

Izincazelo ZeNkantolo Ephakeme: Ukwandisa Incazelo Yokulingana

INkantolo Ephakeme iye yafeza indima ewujuqu ekuchazeni ukulingana koMthetho - sisekelo.

Ukuzilawula Okusekelwe Emhlanganeni

  • [FLT] Brown v. Board of Education (1954): [ Lesisinqumo sohlanga sihlangene sathi ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi akunaziqu zobuzwe, ukuguqula [[FLT:]] Planet v. Ferguson. Umphathi weJaji u-Earl Warrenren Warren wabhala ukuthi “Izakhiwo zemfundo ezihlukeneyo ziyalingana,” kuvikelwa isithembiso sika-Claus we-Oble Exf.
  • ukuphuma v. Virginia (1967): INkantolo yaqeda ukuvinjelwa kombuso emshadweni wezinhlanga, iphethe leyomingcele esekelwe ohlangeni yaphula kokubili iSivikelo esilinganayo neNdlela ka-Celas. Lesi sinqumo saqeda ifa lemithetho elwayo eyaye yaqhubeka kusukela ngezikhathi zamakoloni.
  • Imithetho yaseYunivesithi yaseCalifornia v. Bakke [[FLT:] INkantolo yasekela isenzo sokuyekelela ngokwezimiso kodwa yasusa imingcele eqinile yezinhlanga. Lelicala lasungula ukuthi izinhlobonhlobo zisithakazelo sikahulumeni esiphoqelelayo, kodwa ukuvuma kohlanga kumelwe kulungiswe kancane. Isinqumo siye sacwengisiswa yizenzakalo ezilandelayo ezifana [[FLT:] Gritate v. Bollinger[FL:] (2003) [FL:] kanye [FLT] [3] [3]
  • Shelby County v. Hoker (2013): Inkantolo yachitha ilungiselelo eliyinhloko le-Voting Rights Act elalifuna imibuso ethile ukuba ithole imvume kahulumeni ngaphambi kokushintsha imithetho yokuvota. Isinqumo salulaza umthetho wendabuko futhi saholela ekubekeni imingcele emisha yokuvota.

Ukuvinjelwa Okusekelwe Ezweni

  • Ehlayo v. Reed (1971]: ngokokuqala ngqá, iNkantolo Ephakeme yasebenzisa iSichibiyelo seshumi Nesine ukushaya umthetho owehlukaniswe ngesisekelo sobulili. Icala lalihilela ukukhethwa kwamadoda njengabalawuli bezindawo, futhi iNkantolo yayithi ukuhlukanisa ubulili okungalingani kwenqabela u-Claus Ehlangeneyo.
  • [FLT] Craig v. Boren [6] INkantolo yamisa indinganiso yokuhlola] yokuhlola izinhlelo ezisekelwe ebulilini. Ngaphansi kwalokhu kuhlola, imithetho ephatha amadoda nabesifazane ngendlela ehlukile kumelwe iqhubeke isithakazelo esibalulekile sikahulumeni. Lendinganiso iyaqhubeka isetshenziswa namuhla.
  • [FLT] United States v. Virginia (1996] INkantolo yanquma ukuthi i-Virginia Military Institute yabesilisa kuphela evumayo yayiphula umthetho weSivikelo esilinganayo sika-Claus. Isinqumo sasebenzisa imfuneko “enamandla okulunga, iqinisa indinganiso yokuhlola yaphakathi.
  • .[[FLT:] R [77]] ne[FLT] Dobs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization [2022]: kakhulu kuyilapho ifakwe ekwamalungelo emfihlo, i-Roe[ ishone isilinganiso sobulili obuphakathi ngokuvikela ukuzala. [[FLT:]] [[FLT]] Isinqumo sokugumbula], esagumbula [[FLT:] [FL:] [FLD] [FL:] [FLD] [FLT] [FL:] [FFLT]] [11] [FF:]]

Impikiswano Yamanje Nempikiswano Eqhubekayo

Izinhlangano zanamuhla nezingxabano ezingokomthetho zembula igebe elihlala njalo phakathi kombhalo womthetho - sisekelo kanye nezinto ezingokoqobo.

Ubandlululo Olulawulwa Isimiso Nokuhamba Kwe - Black Life Matter

I-Black Live Matter yasungulwa ngo-2013, iye yaletha ukunakekela okuvuselelwe onya lwamaphoyisa, ukuboshwa kwabantu abaningi, kanye nobandlululo lwezinhlanga. Lenhlangano idinga izinguquko ezidlula iziNguqulo zokuqala, kuhlanganise nezinguquko ekuhlolweni kwesimiso sokuvikela izikhali, inqubo yebheyili, nemithetho yokugwema. Imibuzo yomthetho-sisekelo yaphakama . . . . . . Mayelana nezijeziso ezingavamile zeSimemezelo SesiH. nesivikelo seSiphendulo Sesine ekuphenyeni okungenangqondo nokuquleka okungakholekiyo.

Igebe Elibangelwa Ukuhlobana Kwezinhlanga Nokulingana Kwemisebenzi

Naphezu koMthetho ka-1963 olinganayo noMthetho ka-1963 no-Sihloko VII we-Civil Rights Act ka-1949, abesifazane basahola ngokwesilinganiso, amasenti angaba ngu-82 emalini ngayinye ehhhololwe amadoda. Igebe libi kakhulu kwabesifazane abanemibala. Izinga lomthetho-sisekelo lihlanganisa izimpikiswano ngaphansi kweSivikelo esilinganayo sika-Clauskames kanye nemizamo eqhubekayo yemithetho enjenge-Pachack Fairnernet Act ka-Frector. Ukubusa kweNkandlu Ephakeme [FL:0] ngcono kakhulu v. Goodyearty & Lamp; Ruber Comber.[FLT] (2007) kwashukumisa uHulls Coversss kudlulisel Betwercence Rever Reacence Act ka-Geneal 2009, ibonakalisa ukuthatha i-methirolayezahlulelo-mthetho ne-mthetho.

Ukungezwani: Ukuqonda Ukucwasana Okuyingxubevange

Umqondo wokuhlangana kwezindawo, owaqanjwa isazi sezomthetho uKimberlé Crenshaw, uqaphela ukuthi abantu bacwaswa ngenxa yezizathu eziningi ezihlukene. Ngokwesibonelo, owesifazane omnyama angase abhekane nobandlululo olungesona nje izinhlanga noma ubufana kodwa iqoqo eliyingqayizivele lazo zombili. Umthetho woMthetho-sisekelo awusheshi ukusingatha iziphakamiso zokuhlangana; izinkantolo eziningi zifuna ukuba abathandi bakhethe phakathi kohlanga nobulili njengesisekelo sokumangalelwa kwabo. Lokhu kugcizelela isidingo sokuqondana okuhlukile kokulingana ngaphansi koMthetho-sisekelo.

Ukufuna Amalungelo Ekhulu Lama - 21

Ngemva kwesinqumo iShelby County, izifunda eziningana ezimisa imithetho ye-ID yamavoti, ezihlanza iziphungulo zovoti, futhi zivala izindawo zokuhlola ngezindlela ezithinta ngokungenakulinganiswa izinhlanga ezincane. I-Four People Act (H.R. 1) ne-John Lewis Voting Rights Adrivement Act ziye zahlongozwa ukubuyisela nokuqinisa isivikelo sikahulumeni. Lezinkulumo zigcizelela ukubaluleka okuqhubekayo kweSiphendulo seshumi elinesihlanu nesidingo sokugcinwa kokugcinwa kokuvota komthetho-mthetho.

Ukulingana Kwesihloko IX Nesiko Esiphathelene Nemfundo

Nakuba ingekho inguquko yomthetho-mthetho, iSihlokwana IX seSichibiyelo semfundo sango 1972 siye saba ithuluzi elinamandla lokulingana kwabesilisa nezikhungo zemfundo ezixhaswe uhulumeni. Sinqabela ukucwaswa kwezocaba okusekelwe ebulilini ezimisweni nasemisebenzini yemfundo, okuholela ekwandiseni kwamathuba abesifazane emidlalweni, emikhakheni ye-STEM, nasekuvikeleni ekuhlukunyezweni ngokobulili. Izimpi ezingokomthetho ziyaqhubeka mayelana nokuthatha kwesihloko esithi IX, ikakhulukazi ngokuphathelene nokuhlanganyela kwabafundi emdlalweni nasezindaweni zokungena.

Isiphetho: Umsebenzi Ongancishisiwe Wokulingana

Uhambo loMthetho-sisekelo olusuka encwadini ebekezelela ubugqila kulelo elivikela ukucwaswa okusekelwe ohlazweni nasebulilini luyisivumelwano samandla okulungisa nokuchaza. IziNguqulo ze-constructon, iSichibiyelo seshumi elinesitho nesithupha, nezinqumo zeNkantolo ePhakamileyo ezingokomlando ziye zandisa inxanxathela yalabo abanelungelo lokulingana. Nokho umsebenzi awuphelele. Ukuhluleka ukusekela iSimemezelo samalungelo eSikhungweni Somthetho, ukuphikelela kokuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ngokuvota, ukumiswa komthetho wobugebengu, nethuba lezomnotho, kanye nezimpikiswano eziqhubekayo zokudlulisa amalungelo enkululeko nezokuzalana zonke zibonisa ukuthi ukulingana komthetho kunamandla, umsebenzi ongapheliziwe. Abafundi nabafundi kumelwe baqhubeke bethatha indiva imibhalo yomthetho womthetho, umlando, futhi baqinisekise ukuthi isithembiso sokulingana kwabo bonke abantu.

ukuze uqhubeke ufunda, hlola umbhalo ophelele woMthetho-sisekelo kanye nezinguquko zawo e Izinqolobane zesizwe [, futhi ubukeze amacala eNkantolo evelele aphathelene namalungelo omphakathi e [umsebenzi .