Isingeniso

UMthetho-sisekelo we-United States umi njengomthetho ophakeme wezwe, umisa isakhiwo sikahulumeni kahulumeni kahulumeni futhi ubala amalungelo abantu ayisisekelo. Nakuba incwadi yokuqala ingakwenqabelanga ngokuqondile ukucwaswa kobandlululo noma ukuqinisekisa ukulingana ngomqondo wanamuhla, ukuguqulwa nokuchazwa kwawo kuye kwaba amathuluzi anamandla ekulweni nobandlululo. Kusukela ku-Bill of Rights kuya ku-Grandement ye-145 yeSichibiyelo futhi ngalé, uMthetho-sisekelo uye wasetshenziswa ukuqeda ukuncitshiswa kwezimiso zezimiso zesimiso somphakathi nokuthuthukisa ukuphatha okulinganayo ngaphansi komthetho. Lesi sihloko sihlola izinhlelo zomthetho-mthetho-mthetho, izinqumo zeSihlalo, nezinqululo eziqhubekayo ezithinta indlela ubandlululo nokulingana okuqhubekiselwa ngayo.

Isiqalo: Ukumisa Isisekelo Sobulungisa Nokulingana

Isaziso sokumemezela izinjongo zoMthetho-sisekelo simemezela: “Thina bantu base-United States, silandela ukumiswa kwe-Order ukuze sakhe i-Union ephelele ngokwengeziwe, simise ubulungisa, siqinisekise ulwembuku, sinikeze isivikelo esivamile, sithuthukise i-Welfare, futhi siqinise iMibusisombuluko yeNkululeko kithi ngokwethu kanye nakuBuso bethu, simisa loMthetho-sisekelo we-United States of America.” Inkulumo ethi “Thina bantu” sasizimela isikhathi saso, siqinisekisa ukuthi igunya likahulumeni lithathelwe imvume yokubuswa kunombusi kunoma ngumbusi. Nakuba uMthetho-mthetho wokuqala ungawenzisa ubuzwe noma amalungelo abesifazane, ugqila abantu, noma ugqila abantu, noma umphakathi, ukubiza kwe-Prevergassiasssss ngenxa“ ye-“ Justice ne-Geneltic" ngenxa yesizwe.

I - Bill of Rights: Ukuvikela Inkululeko Yomuntu Ngamunye Ebuthweni Likahulumeni Elinamandla

Izinguquko zokuqala eziyishumi, ezagunyazwa ngo-1791, zaziwa njengeSigqi Samalungelo. Zaklanyelwa ukulinganisela amandla kahulumeni kahulumeni futhi zivikele inkululeko yabantu ngabanye. Ekuqaleni, lezi zinguquko zasebenza kuhulumeni kahulumeni, kodwa ngemfundiso yokuhlanganisa , yasekelwe eSimisweni seSikhawulo se 14 seSiphendulo sika-Grandezi u-Claus . Amalungiselelo amaningi manje asebenza nasembusweni wezwe nasehulumenini. Izinguquko ezithile ezisebusweni ze-Bill of Rights zezindaba eziqondile zobandlululo nezokuphathwa ngendlela engafanele.

ISichibiyelo Sokuqala: Inkululeko Yokukhuluma Nomhlangano

ISichibiyelo Sokuqala siqinisekisa inkululeko yokukhuluma, inkolo, ukunyathelisa, ukuhlangana nelungelo lokucela uhulumeni. Lezi zikhuselo zenza amaqembu angaphansi akhiphe izikhalo zawo, ahlele izikhalo, futhi asekele ushintsho olungokomthetho. Ngokwesibonelo, ukulandelela amalungelo abantu ngawo - 1960 kwakuncike kakhulu ezivikelweni zeSichibiyelo Sokuqala, futhi iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yayilahla ngokuphindaphindiwe imithetho yokuvimbela ukubusa ngokuthula noma yokubeka izinkulumo ezisekelwe embonweni.

Isichibiyelo Sesine: Ukuvikelwa Ekucwaningeni Nokukhohlisa

ISichibiyelo Sesine sonogada ngokungezwani nohulumeni. Nakuba zingashiwonga ngokuqondile ngokulingana, kuye kwacelwa isivikelo saso ezimweni zobuhlanga nomthetho wobuhlanga. Whren v. United States [1966], iNkantolo yavumela ukunqanyulwa kwemibhalo, abagxeki abaphikisayo baphikisa ukuthi ibala lithinta abantu ngokungenakulinganiswa. Nokho, izenzakalo zamuva kakhulu ezifana Utah v. Strieff[FLT:] (20) inezimpikiswano ezintsha mayelana nokuthi iSiphazamiso se-Gawula-mthetho sesine singasetshenziswa kanjani ekubekeleni inseleleni imithetho engokobuhlanga.

ISichibiyelo Sesishiyagalombili: Unya Nesijeziso Esingavamile

ISichibiyelo Sesibhozo senqabela ibheyili ephakeme, amahlawuli aphakeme, nesijeziso esinonya nesingavamile. Siye sayibekela inselele inselele yokulahla ukuhlukanisa izimpawu ezilimaza ngokungenakulinganiswa abamangalelwa abambalwa. Furman v. Georgia[] [772]], iNkantolo yazehlisa isigwebo sokufa esisetshenziswa ekuvimbeleni ukuphila okuphelele nangokobuhlanga ngendlela elulaza ideveli, nakuba kamuva yasekela imithetho ebukeziwe Gregb v. Georgia[[[FLT:]][FLT]][19][19]] [19]]. Muva nje, iNkakhulu, iNkathi yeNkade isebenzise isijeziso sokuvimbela ukuphila okusemthethweni ngaphandle kwezingane, iqaphela ukuthi izingane zingabantu abancane futhi zifanele ukucatshangelwa ngezenzo ezilinganayo.

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane: Isisekelo Sokulingana

I-ratived yabekwa ngo-1868, iSichibiyelo seshumi nane leminyaka kwakuyimpendulo eqondile kubantu ababeyizigqila ngemva kweMpi Yombango. Siqukethe izinombolo eziningana eziyisihluthulelo, kodwa esibaluleke kakhulu ekusingatheni ubandlululo yiSivikelo esilinganayo sika-Claus: “Awukho uHulumeni... oyophika noma ubani onegunya lakhe lokuvikela imithetho elinganayo.” Lo mshwana wemithetho yemithetho uye waba yithuluzi eliyinhloko eliyinselele lemithetho nemikhuba yokulawula ubandlululo.

Isivikelo Esilinganayo Nokulingana Kohlanga

I-Umeal Protection Claus yachazwa okokuqala ngokucunula Plessy v. Ferguson [1896], lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela khona ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ngaphansi kwemfundiso ethi “ukuhlukaniswa kodwa ilingana”. [[FLT:] Icala lenqaba ukuthi ibambe [[FLT:]] Brown v. ibhodi lemfundo [1954], isho ukuthi “izakhiwo zemfundo ezihlukene azilingani.” Brown yashaya ihn'ehla ihrangehla imvume yomphakathi ezikoleni futhi yabeka isisekelo senkululeko yeminye yemibutho yomphakathi.'izimiso ezandiswa kwezinye izindawo, ukuvosa kakhulu kwemithetho yeze isebenza ngokucukuhlela imithetho eqinile, futhi isebenza ngokucuphenya kwezentengo yomthetho yezentengo yomthetho.[inqulu yomthetho yezo]

Ukulingana Kwezihlobo Ngezitho Zomzimba Nobungcweti Obuphakathi

Isivikelo esilinganayo u-Claus sivimbela futhi ukucwasana okusekelwe ebulilini, nakuba indinganiso yokubukeza ihlanganisa ukucubungula okuphakathi kunokuhlolisisa ngokuqinile. Craig v. Boren [197], iNkantolo ikholelwa ukuthi ukuhlelwa kwabesilisa nabesifazane kumelwe kuhlangene kakhulu nesithakazelo esibalulekile sikahulumeni. Izinqumo zihlanganisa [[FLT:] v. [FLT] [FLT] [FLT]] [3] [7] [7], okwahlasela umthetho okhetha amadoda njengabaqondisi bezindawo; [[FLT] Fronson].[4].[FLT] [f] [4] [intect:] [7] [izinhlangothi oluqinile], owawehlisa imithetho ephathiswe ngokwezinkonzo yabesifazane; [inani] [inani], [i-Fognome], [iv], [iv] izisekethi yenani eligunyazwe yindawo yombuso.[i, ishoshoshoshovu

LGBTQ+ Amalungelo NeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

Emashumini eminyaka amuva, i-Unicial Procement Clauss iye yasetshenziswa ukuvikela amalungelo e-LGBTQ+ abantu ngabanye. [ Obergefell v. Hodges [2015], iNkantolo yaqaphela umshado ofanayo-wesilisa njengelungelo eliyisisekelo ngaphansi kwazo zombili izimemezelo, igcizelela ukuthi “uMthetho-sisekelo uthembisa inkululeko kubo bonke abantu abaphakathi kokufinyelela kwawo." Ngaphambili, [[FLTFLT:2]] Lor v. Evans [1966]], iNkanto ehlela phansi iColoradovalda isivikelo esimelene nokuvikelwa kwemishosholo, kodwa ibuye ibone isisekelo esisekelwe embonini yomthetho wezomthetho wezwe, kodwa iphinde ikwazi ukuchaza isilinganiso esiqinile sohlobo oluphezulu lwezwezwezwe linye.[5][5] Inyunyunyunyunyunyu yohlobo olubanzi lwezelelene, intensi yesilinganiso sezente, isilinganiso se

Imfundiso Yokuvumelana

ISichibiyelo seSinyathelo se-14 seSiphendulo sika-Claus saQeqesha u-Marry Claus esenzelwa ukuhlanganisa ingxenye enkulu yeSigqi Samalungelo esizwe ngokumelene nezifundazwe, siqinisekisa ukuthi inkululeko eyisisekelo ivikelwe ngokufanayo kulo lonke izwe. Lenqubo iye yaba nenselele ekusebenziseni i-Foright, yesihlanu, neye-6th, ne-E80h Reformationstions kuhulumeni, ngaleyo ndlela inciphisa ukuhlukaniswa kwezindawo emalungelweni omphakathi. Ngokwesibonelo, i-hogan[FLT], ilungelo lokuyalulela ([FL: 0]]Gideon v.Wainrightight []], 1963], kanye nelungelo lokumelene nokuzikhulula kobugebengu.[FLT]]][FLT]]][FLT]], manje kuvimbela ukugwetshwa kwezenzo zobugebengu, noma ukuvinjwa kobugebengu.

Ukuvuma Amalungelo Nomthetho - sisekelo

Ukusakaza kuwumnyombo wokuhlanganyela kwentando yeningi, futhi uMthetho - sisekelo uye walungiswa izikhathi eziningana ukuze kuqedwe izithiyo zokuhlukanisa amaqembu.

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nanhlanu (1870)

“ Ilungelo lezakhamuzi zase-United States lokuvota ngeke linqatshwe noma livinjelwe i-United States noma yinoma yimuphi uMbuso ngenxa yohlanga, ibala, noma isimo sobugqila sangaphambili.” Naphezu kwalesi siqinisekiso, intela yokuvota, ukuhlola ukufunda nokubhala, izigaba, kanye nokwesabisa okunobudlova ukuze kususwe i-Blackpotice. Kwathatha cishe ikhulu leminyaka ngaphambi kokuba i-Voting Rights Act ka-65 ngokuphumelelayo i-Intemplection, kodwa kuvinjelwe lezimiso zomthetho futhi kufune ukuba izikhulu zomthetho zihlolwe ngomlando wobandlululo. Kamuva iNkantolo Ephakeme yalula iSigaba 5 ngaphambi kwe[FLT] [FLD]. [FLT] .[FLT] [FLT] [FLY] [2011], kodwa ihlala i-dentine ye-goverse.

ISichibiyelo Se - 19 (1920)

“ Ilungelo lezakhamuzi zase-United States lokuvota ngeke linqatshwe noma livinjelwe i-United States noma yinoma yimuphi uMbuso ngenxa yobulili.” Ngemva kwamashumi eminyaka empimpi yabesifazane, lokhu kulunga kwenqatshelwa ukucwaswa kokhetho lwabesifazane. Kwakuyisinyathelo esiphawulekayo sokulingana kwabesilisa, nakuba ngokuyinhloko kwakuzuzisa abesifazane abamhlophe; abesifazane abaningi abanemibala basabhekene nemingcele esekelwe ebala nasesabelweni sobuhlalweni kuze kube yilapho kamuva kukhishwa umthetho nenkantolo.

ISichibiyelo Se - 20 - Fourth (1964)

“ Ilungelo lezakhamuzi zase-United States lokuvota kunoma yiluphi ukhetho oluyinhloko noma olunye... ngeke linqatshwe noma livalwe ... ngenxa yokwehluleka ukukhokha noma iyiphi intela yokuvota.” Intela yempoqo yayisetshenziselwa ngokungenakulinganiswa ukulahla abavoti abaphansi, ikakhulukazi ama-Afrikans America eNingizimu. Lokhu kususwa kwesithiyo sezomnotho sokuvota, nakuba eminye imikhuba evimbelayo enjengemithetho yevoti iyaqhubeka iphikisana ngomongo wokungena okulinganayo.

ISichibiyelo Sesithathu samashumi amabili nantathu (1971)

“ Ilungelo lezakhamuzi zase-United States, ezineminyaka eyishumi nesishiyagalombili noma ngaphezulu, lokuvota ngeke linqatshwe noma livalwe ngenxa yobudala.” Lenguquko yathotshiswa empini yokuthi labo abadala ngokwanele ukuba babuthwe empini kufanele babe nezwi kuhulumeni wabo. Yanwebela isigaba esisha sezakhamuzi, inciphisa ukucwasa okusekelwe ekuvotelweni.

Ukuphoqelelwa Kwamalungelo Okwahlulela

Ngalé kokulungisa, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yachaza i-Exciple Protection Claus ifuna “umuntu oyedwa, ivoti eyodwa” (Reynolds v. Simltons, 1964), ukususa izishaya-mthetho zikahulumeni ezihlukene ezangcolisa amavoti emiphakathini yasedolobheni nasemiphakathini emincane. Le nkantolo ibuye iqede ukuzimisela kwezinhlanga (Shaw v. Reno, 1993) kanye no-Gargerman (nawokungahlulwa okusemthethweni kusele kusekhona). Lokhu kubonisa ukuncintisana kwezombangazwe.

Impikiswano Yesikhathi Esizayo Nencazelo Yomthetho - sisekelo

Izimpikiswano zanamuhla ngobandlululo nokulingana ngokuvamile zigxile endleleni yokusebenzisa izimiso zomthetho - sisekelo ezisekelwe emongweni omusha.

Isenzo Esiqinisayo

Izimiso eziqinile zijonge ukulungisa ukucwasana ngokomlando ngokucabangela ukuthatha iphuzu elilodwa ekuvumeni, ekuqasheni, noma ekuthatheni. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yasekela izinhlelo ezilula ezizwayo zohlanga ngaphansi kokuzihlolisisa ngokuqinile, njengaku [ i-Graiteb v. Bollinger[[ [i-2003] [izici zobulili] [izici zobulili], ezivumela ukwahlukahlukahlukana kwemfundo ephakeme. Nokho, iNkanto ebekelwe inyathelo lokuvuma, ishaya izimiso ([[FLT:]]]]]] Regnots zeYunivesithi yase California.[FLT][FFF]] [4]], [eye]) ezinciphiswe ngokunye kwezimiso zombuso wombuso wombuso wombuso wombuso.[4], i-193] Izinhlelo eziqinile zesigaba sokuncintiswa kwezimiso.[3], i-194] Izinhlelo ezingcono, i-19, i-19, i-19

Ukuchaza Isigebengu Namalungelo Okudlulisa Isizwe

Abantu abaguquliwe baye babhekana nobandlululo ekunakekeleni impilo, emsebenzini, emfundweni, nasezindaweni zomphakathi. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme kuboshelwa phezulu [u-Clayton County[FLT:] [20] [20]) bakholelwa ukuthi ukucwaswa okusekelwe ekushicilelweni ngesimo sokushintshashintsha kwempilo, ukucwaswa kwezocansi kuyisimo sobulilifa ngaphansi kweSihloko samalungelo omphakathi. Nakuba kungesona isinqumo somthetho-mthetho, siye sathonya izinkantolo eziphansi ukuchaza i-Clausleaste . Ngokwesibonelo, isifunda sesine sabusa Grim v.Grim.Glort Yomnyango yeSikolo sase-Counter[Flct:3] 2020 [20] inqubo yesikole ehambisa ubulili obulingana ne-Shuni elingana ne-IStogown Ixvovotivelder.

Ubulungisa Bobuhlanga Nobandlululo Olulawulwa Isimiso

Izinhlangano zanamuhla ezinjenge-Black Live Matter ziye zaqokomisa ukwahlukana okuqhubekayo kwezinhlanga ekwahluleleni kobugebengu, izindlu, umsebenzi, nemfundo. Nakuba uMthetho-sisekelo wenqabela ukucwasana ngamabomu, abaningi baphikisa ngokuthi imithetho engathathi hlangothi ebusweni ingasusa imiphumela efuna ukulingana. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yafuna ubufakazi obubonisa injongo yokuhlukanisa kunokususa nje ithonya elikhona ekusunguleni ukwephulwa kwezeluleko olulinganayo ([[FLT: 0]] Shinton v. Davis, 1976]). Lesi sicinde sendlu siye sagxekwa abasekeli bamalungelo omphakathi abaphikisa ukuthi ihluleka ukuxoxa ngobandlululo olufakwa emikhubeni yezimiso. Ukusabela okufana nomthetho wemithetho yemithetho engokomthetho ePhaka i-Calcissing, njengokuzama ukunikeza la macala engxandelweni engokomthetho engokomthetho, kodwa kuqhubekela kule mithetho engokomthetho.

Ukulingana Kwezomnotho Nomthetho - sisekelo

UMthetho-sisekelo awukuqinisekisi ngokuqondile ukulingana kwezomnotho, futhi iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yenqaba ukuqaphela ilungelo lokuthola izinga elilinganiselwe lokuphila noma lokuthola imithombo elinganayo. San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez [19773], iNkantolo yalahla ukusho ukuthi ukuhlukanisa ingcebo esekelwe emalini yesikole kwaphula i-Ex Protective Claine, iphethe ukuthi imfundo ayiyona isisekelo selungelo eliyisisekelo ngaphansi koMthetho-Constitution. Nokho, imithetho engokomthetho inikeza isivikelo esiqinile semfundo nenhlala phambili, kanye nesiqinisekiso somthetho-Constitution sisebenza nasemithethweni ezindaweni ezithile, njengokufinyelela ezinkantolo ([FL:2]]).[5]

Isiphetho: UMthetho - sisekelo Njengomsebenzi Oshintshayo Wokulingana

Indima yoMthetho-sisekelo ekusingatheni ukucwasa nokuthuthukisa ukulingana iye yakhula kakhulu kusukela ngo 1787. NgeSiphakamiso samaLungelo, iSichibiyelo sokwakha kabusha, nokwanda kwamalungelo okuvota, lencwadi iye yashintshwa yaba ithuluzi elinamandla lokuvikela inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye nokuqinisekisa ukuphathwa okulinganayo ngaphansi komthetho. ISihlalo esiPhakamileyo sokulungisa izinqumo [`Brown v'. ibhodi lemfundo yemfundo [ [iSiphelo] ku [[FLT:]] owell v. Hodge b. Hodgeb [indlela eqinile] izinselele zokusabela komthetho wemithetho emisha] [ukuchaza izinselele izinselele ukuthi ukuthuthukisa kanjani ubulungisa ngisho nalapho umbhalo wokuqala uthule noma ugesalele kuyo yonke i-mpi. Kodwa umsebenzi awuqediendiswanga ngenxa yezenzo, ukuhlanganisa amalungelo ohlanga, ukulingana kwezomnotho, nokulunga nemithetho yezente, iphinde ibonise iphinde iphinde iqhubeke iqhubeke ikhiphe ikhiphe

[[Umthetho:0] Imithombo:[[[Umthetho:1]