Isimiso Senkantolo Esiwubushiqela

Isimiso senkantolo sihlelwe njengesigaba sokuqinisekisa ukusebenza kahle, ukungaguquguquki, nokulunga. Izinkantolo eziphansi zisingatha amacala amaningi, kuyilapho izinkantolo eziphakeme zihlola futhi zimise izindinganiso ezingokomthetho. Lolu hlelo olunemingxube luvumela amacala ukuba aqhubekele phambili ngokudlulisa izikhalo, lunikeze abaqondisi amathuba amaningi okubekela izinqumo inselele. Ukuqonda lesisigaba sinyathelo siyisinyathelo sokuqala sokuqonda indlela umthetho osebenza ngayo.

Isigaba ngasinye senkantolo sinegunya elihlukile, okusho igunya lokuzwa izinhlobo ezithile zecala. Ukumangalelwa kunqunywa ngezici ezinjengendaba, isilinganiso semali ephikisanayo, ubungako bobugebengu, nokuthi icala lihilela uhulumeni noma umthetho kahulumeni. Lokhu kuhlukanisa kwegunya kuvimbela noma isiphi inkantolo eyodwa ukuba sinqotshwe futhi kuqinisekise ukuthi abahluleli baqala ukuba nobuchwepheshe ezindaweni abaphatha ngazo kaningi.

Izinkantolo Zendawo: Isisekelo Sobulungisa

Izinkantolo zendawo, ngokuvamile ezibizwa ngokuthi izinkantolo zikamasipala, izinkantolo zesifunda, noma izinkantolo zamajaji, ziyindawo yokungena esimisweni sokwahlulela sabantu abaningi. Lezinkantolo zisingatha amacala amaningi kakhulu futhi zingamajaji afinyeleleka kakhulu. Ziyizinkantolo lapho izakhamuzi ezivamile zivame kakhulu ukusebenzelana nesimiso somthetho, kungaba njengommangalelwa ecaleni lezimoto, iqembu elithile empikiswaneni encane, noma ufakazi wendaba ethile yomkhaya.

Ukumangalelwa Necala Lamankantolo Endawo

Izinkantolo zendawo zisingatha izindaba ezingalinganisiwe futhi eziqinile. Izigaba ezivamile zihlanganisa:

  • Ukuphulwa kwamaTraffic:[ amathikithi asheshayo, izibani ezibomvu, kanye nokunye ukwephulwa kwemithetho okunyakazayo kuphakathi kwamacala avame ukuzwakala ezinkantolo zendawo.
  • [[QUE:0] Icala lobugebengu: Iziphambeko ezinjengokweba okuncane, ukuziphatha okungahlelekile, nokuhlasela okulula kwehlela ngaphansi kwegunya lenkantolo yendawo.
  • Iqopha izimpikiswano zomphakathi: Icala elihilela imali encane uma kuqhathaniswa, ngokuvamile ngokwesembozo esithile esimiswe umthetho kahulumeni, lixazululwa lapha ngaphandle kwesidingo sokumelelwa komthetho obizayo.
  • Izindaba zomthetho womkhaya:[ Izahlulelo zokuqala zedivosi, ukuwinwa kwezingane, ukusekela umntwana, kanye neziqondiso zokuvikela ziqala ezinkantolo zendawo.
  • [[Umthetho:0] Izimpikiswano ezixabanayo: Amacala okuhlungwa kanye nokungavumelani komnikazi wendlu kuvame ukusingathwa kulelizinga.

Icala eliqulwa ezinkantolo zendawo likhulu kakhulu. Ngokwemininingwane evela eNational Center for State Courts, izinkantolo zikahulumeni nase-United States zisingatha amacala angaba yizigidi ezingu - 80 kuya kweziyikhulu minyaka yonke. Lomqulu ugcizelela ukubaluleka kwezinkantolo zendawo njengamahhashi asebenzayo esimiso sokwahlulela.

Indlela Izinkantolo Zendawo Ezisebenza Ngayo

Icala lenkantolo lendawo ngokuvamile alikho ngokomthetho njengalelo elisezinkantolo eziphakeme. Abahluleli ngokuvamile bathatha indima ekhuthele kakhulu ekuqondiseni amacala, futhi imithetho yobufakazi ingasetshenziswa ngokusheshiswa. Ezinkantolo eziningi zendawo, abamangalelwa emacaleni amancane babonakala bengenammeli, ngakho amajaji kumelwe aqinisekise ukuthi amacala ayaqondakala nokuthi amalungelo awo wonke amaqembu ayavikelwa.

Izehlulelo ziyahlukahluka ngokwemithetho, kodwa icala elivamile lenkantolo lendawo lihilela ukubonakala kokuqala lapho kufundwa khona amacala, isikhalazo sifakwa khona, futhi usuku lokuqulwa kwecala lungamiswa. Amacala amaningi axazululwa ngokuncenga noma ukuxazululwa ngaphambi kokuba kufike icala. Uma kuqulwa icala, ngokuvamile liba ukuqulwa kwecala, okusho umahluleli unquma umphumela kunokuba ahlulele abahluleli. Nokho, ezimweni lapho icala likhona, lenqubo ilandela izinqubo ezivamile ezivumelana nesimo sendawo.

Izikhalo ezivela ezinqumweni zenkantolo yendawo ngokuvamile ziya enkantolo ephakeme noma enkantolo ephakathi nendawo ngaphakathi kwesimiso sombuso. Ukulawula okulinganiselwe kwezinkantolo zendawo kusho ukuthi izinqumo zazo zingabukezwa ngemibuzo yomthetho futhi, kwezinye izimo, ekutholeni amaqiniso.

Izinkantolo ZoMbuso: Ukusingatha Izindaba Ezingathi Sína

Ngaphezu kwezinkantolo zendawo kukhona izinkantolo zombuso eziqulwayo zegunya elivamile, ezisingatha amacala angathi sína kakhulu. Lezinkantolo ziwumgogodla wesimiso sokwahlulela sikahulumeni futhi zinegunya lokulalela cishe noma yiliphi icala elingabelwanga ngokuqondile enkantolo yendawo noma enkantolo ekhethekile. Umbuso ngamunye usebenza isimiso sawo siqu senkantolo, futhi nakuba izakhiwo zihlukene, amalungu avamile ahlanganisa izinkantolo, izinkantolo eziphakathi kwezinkantolo, nenkantolo ephakeme yezwe.

Izinkantolo Zokuqulwa Kwamacala Kajenene

Izinkantolo zenkantolo zikahulumeni, ezaziwa ngamagama njengenkantolo ephakeme, inkantolo yesifunda, noma isifundazwe, zisingatha amacala obugebengu, izimpikiswano zombango ezihilela imali, kanye nezikhalo ezivela ezinkantolo zendawo. Lezi zinkantolo zinegunya lokuqala ezindabeni eziningi ezingokomthetho futhi zilapho kuvela khona izimpi ezibaluleke kakhulu ezingokomthetho.

Amacala ahlotshaniswayo, ahlanganisa amacala angathi sína anjengokubulala, ukuphanga, nokuhlasela ngokobulili, aqulwa kulezinkantolo. Abavikeli emacaleni anecala banelungelo lokuqulwa icala, futhi izigxobo ziphakeme, nezigwebo ezingase zihlanganise izigwebo ezithatha isikhathi eside ejele noma ngisho nokuboshwa ukuphila. Amacala omphakathi ezinkantolo zokuqulwa kwecala angahlanganisa izimpikiswano, ukulimaza komuntu siqu, ukungaphathisi mpahla, nokuphikiswana kwezebhizinisi. Imali exabanayo ingaqala ngezinkulungwane ezimbalwa zama - dollar kuya ezigidini ezimbalwa, futhi ukuqulwa kwecala kungathatha izinsuku ezimbalwa noma amasonto.

Izinkantolo zenkantolo zizwa nezikhalo ezivela ezinkantolo zendawo. Le nqubo ivumela ukubukezwa kabusha kwezinqumo zenkantolo yendawo, iqinisekisa ukuthi amaphutha angokomthetho ayalungiswa futhi kunikezwe ubulungisa. Ezizweni eziningi, inkantolo ihlola umlando enkantolo yendawo futhi ingaqulwa kabusha uma kudingekile.

Izinkantolo Ezingenelayo

Izinkantolo ezidlulisa amacala, ngokuvamile ezibizwa ngokuthi izinkantolo zecala noma izinkantolo zesifunda zokudlulisa amacala, zisebenza njengezinga lokuqala lokubukeza izinqumo ezenziwa yizinkantolo eziqulwayo. Umsebenzi wazo oyinhloko ukuhlola umlando wecala futhi unqume ukuthi amaphutha angokomthetho ayenzeka yini athinta umphumela wecala. Lezi zinkantolo azibuphindi amacala noma zilalele ubufakazi obusha; kunalokho, zibukeza izimpikiswano ezingokomthetho ezinikezwa amacala nemibono elotshiwe echaza izinqumo zazo.

Ukutholakala kokubukeza okuphakathi kunikeza i-panellate yokuphepha ebalulekile esimisweni somthetho. Kuvumela izigigaba ukuba zibeke inselele yezinqumo zenkantolo ngaphandle kokuya ngokuqondile enkantolo ephakeme, ngokuvamile enegunya eliyikhombayo ekudluliseni okuningi. Ezizweni eziningi, imicimbi inelungelo lokudlulisa icala enkantolo ephakathi, okusho ukuthi inkantolo kumelwe ilalele icala uma icala ligcinwa ngesikhathi esifanele.

Imibono yabo enyathelisiwe yenza inqubo eqinile engokomthetho kahulumeni ezindaweni zabo, iqondisa izinkantolo zezomthetho futhi inikeza ukubikezela kwezindawo ezikhona. Uma izifunda zesifunda ezihlukene zifinyelela iziphetho eziphikisanayo ngendaba efanayo engokomthetho, inkantolo ephakeme ivame ukuthatha isinyathelo ukuze ixazulule lempi futhi imise indinganiso efanayo yezwe.

Izinkantolo Eziphakeme ZoMbuso

Inkantolo ephakeme kakhulu yesifundazwe inkantolo ephakeme kakhulu esifundazweni, esebenza njengenkantolo yokugcina yezindawo zomthetho wezwe. Lezinkantolo zinegunya lokugcina ekuchazeni umthetho-sisekelo wezwe, imithetho yombuso, nomthetho wezwe. Izinqumo zazo zibopha zonke izinkantolo eziphansi kuhulumeni futhi zingagumbuqelwa kuphela izinkantolo zikahulumeni uma kuhileleke indaba yomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo.

Izinkantolo eziphakeme zikahulumeni zinegunya eliyisinqumo ezinhlangothini zecala ezikhethayo ukuthi yimaphi amacala okuwalalela. Zikhetha ikakhulukazi amacala anikeza imibuzo ebalulekile engokomthetho, ahlanganisa izinqumo ezingqubuzanayo, noma aphakamisa izimpikiswano zenqubo yomphakathi ebalulekile. Inani lamacala aqulwa izinkantolo eziphakeme lihluka kakhulu, kusukela kumakhulu ambalwa kuya kumakhulu ambalwa ngonyaka, kuye ngezwe nangamacala alo.

Amajaji ezinkantolo eziphakeme zikahulumeni akhethwa ngezindlela ezihlukahlukene, kuhlanganise nokumiswa umbusi, ukukhethwa uhulumeni, noma ukufanelekela izimiso zokukhetha ezihlanganisa zombili izihloko zohambo. Izimpawu zesikhundla zisukela eminyakeni eyisithupha kuya ekuphileni, kuye ngokwezwe. Ezizweni eziningi, amajaji aphakeme amele amakhetho okugcina isombululo, lapho abavoti benquma ukuthi bawagcine esikhundleni.

Izindlela Zokuhlukanisa Izinkantolo ZoMbuso

Nakuba isimo esivamile sezinkantolo zikahulumeni singaguquguquki, sikhona umehluko omkhulu. Ezinye izifundazwe zinesimiso senkantolo esinobunye esinezinkantolo ezihlukene, kanti ezinye zinezinkantolo ezihlukene zezinhlobo ezihlukahlukene zecala. Ngokwesibonelo, ezinye izifundazwe zigcina izinkantolo ezihlukene zezindaba ezibhaliwe, umthetho womkhaya, kanye namacala ezingane, kuyilapho ezinye zihlanganisa lemisebenzi ibe inkantolo eyodwa equlweni elilodwa. Amagama ezinkantolo ahluka kakhulu, okungabangela ukudideka kulabo abangajwayelene nesimiso esithile sikahulumeni.

Naphezu kwalokhu kushintshashintsha, zonke izimiso zenkantolo zikahulumeni zinezimiso ezifanayo: zihlelwe ngokulandelana, zinikeza ukubukezwa okungokwezimo, futhi zisebenza ngaphansi kwegunya lomthetho-sisekelo wezwe nemithetho. Ukuqonda isimiso esithile sesimiso senkantolo yezwe kubalulekile kubenzi bezomthetho nanoma ubani ohilelekile ekuhlawulweni kulesosifundazwe.

Izinkantolo Ezizimele: Igunya Lesizwe

Isimiso senkantolo kahulumeni sisebenza ngokufana nezinkantolo zikahulumeni futhi sisingatha amacala ahilela umthetho kahulumeni, uMthetho-sisekelo, nezimpikiswano phakathi kwamaqembu avela ezindaweni ezihlukene. I-Athitude III ye-Constitution, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zinokulawula okulinganiselwe, okusho ukuthi zingalalela amacala agunyaziwe ngokuqondile ngumthetho kahulumeni. Lesimiso senkantolo ehlangene, nezinkantolo zombuso nezikahulumeni ezisebenza kanyekanye, siyisici esivelele se-jurisprudence yaseMelika.

Izinkantolo Zesigodi ZaseU.S.: Izinga Lokuqulwa Kwecala

Izinkantolo zesifunda zase-U.S. ziyizinkantolo zecala lesimiso sikahulumeni. Kunezinkantolo zesigodi ezingu-94 ezisakazwe e-United States nasemasimini ayo, kanti umbuso ngamunye unenkantolo yesigodi eyodwa. Amazwe amakhulu ahlukaniswa abe yizifunda eziningi, njenge-Southern District of New York noma i-Central District of California, ukuze alawule icala ngokuphumelelayo.

Izinkantolo zesigodi zinegunya lokuqala emacaleni amaningi kahulumeni, kuhlanganise nalawa:

  • [ Ukuquliswa kobugebengu obuvela emacaleni: ukwephulwa kwemithetho yobugebengu kahulumeni, njengokushushumbisa izidakamizwa, ukukhwabanisa, amacala okufuduka, nobugebengu bangaphandle, kuqulwa icala enkantolo yesifunda.
  • Amacala aqubuka ngaphansi komthetho kahulumeni: Awemithetho ehlanganisa imithetho kahulumeni, kuhlanganise nokufuna amalungelo omphakathi, ukukhwabanisa kwezezimali, nokungenwa kwempahla, kuzwakala enkantolo yesifunda.
  • Icala lombuso: izingxabano zomphakathi phakathi kwezakhamuzi zasemazweni ahlukene ahilela amaR350 000, kungalethwa enkantolo kahulumeni, ngisho noma iziphakamiso zivela ngaphansi komthetho wezwe.
  • Imithetho ehilela uhulumeni kahulumeni: imelene nezinhlangano zikahulumeni, izinselele zomthetho-sisekelo emithethweni kahulumeni, futhi iziphakamiso ezingaphansi kwe-Federal Tort Act zibekwa enkantolo yesifunda.
  • Imicimbi yobuphathi kanye neyolwandle: Izingxabano ezihilela amanzi avulekayo nezentengiselwano zasolwandle zehlela ngaphansi kwegunya likahulumeni.

Inkantolo yesigodi ilawulwa iMithetho ye-Federal ye-Civil Procediture ne-Federal Rules of Criminal Procediture. Ukuqulwa kwamacala kungase kube ukuqulwa kwecala ebhentshi noma ukuqulwa kwecala, futhi imithetho kahulumeni iqinisekisa ukuvumelana kwezindawo. Abahluleli benkantolo yesigodi bamiswa nguMongameli futhi baqinisekiswe iSigele, sibanikeza inkululeko ekucindezeleni kwezombangazwe.

Izinkantolo Zokudlulisa Amacala E - United States: Izinkantolo Zesifunda

Izinkantolo ezingu-13 zezikhalo zase-U.S., ezibizwa nangokuthi izinkantolo zesifunda, izinkantolo eziphakathi ezisemihlanganweni kahulumeni. Eziyishumi nambili zalezinkantolo zihleliwe ngokwezwe, zihlanganisa izifunda ezihlanganisa izifunda ezihlukene eziningi. I-13, iFederal Friest, inegunya ezweni lonke emacaleni akhethekile anjengezikhalo ezigunyaza nokuzisholo ezimelene nohulumeni.

Izikhalo ezivela ezinqumweni zenkantolo yesigodi zizwakala enkantolo yezikhalo zesifunda lapho inkantolo yesifunda ihlala khona. Inkantolo ihlola irekhodi lenkantolo yesifunda futhi inqume ukuthi amaphutha angokomthetho ayenzeka yini. Izimpikiswano zivame ukuzwakala ngamajaji amathathu, abhala imibono elandela isenzakalo esibophayo phakathi kwesifunda. Emacaleni angavamile, bonke abahluleli esifundeni bangahlala ndawonye njengenkantolo evimbelayo ukuze baphinde bacabangele isinqumo seqembu esiphathelene nokubaluleka okukhulu.

Izinkantolo zesifunda zifeza indima ebaluleke kakhulu ekulolongeni umthetho kahulumeni. Izinqumo zazo zichaza imithetho kahulumeni, zichaza amalungelo omthetho-mthetho, futhi zimise izindinganiso ezingokomthetho izinkantolo zesifunda phakathi kwesifunda okumelwe zilandele. Uma izifunda zingavumelani nendaba engokomthetho, iNkantolo Ephakeme ingathatha isinyathelo ukuze ixazulule lempikiswano. Imibono ekhishweyo yezinkantolo zesifunda iwumthombo oyinhloko womthetho kahulumeni futhi ikhonjiwe kakhulu abameli namajaji.

Izinkantolo Ezikhethekile

Ngaphandle kwezinkantolo zikahulumeni ezivamile, izinkantolo ezikhethekile zisingatha izinhlobo ezithile zamacala. Lezi zihlanganisa:

  • U.S.U. Courtss: Amaqoqo ezinkantolo zesifunda asingatha ukuwa kwamali ngaphansi komthetho wombuso wokuwiswa kwemali.
  • [ U.S. inkantolo ye-Prefectal Intengo: Izwi elishoyo lokulimaza imali kuhulumeni we-United States.
  • [ U.S. iNkantolo ye-International Trade: isingatha amacala ahilela imithetho yezohwebo nemithetho yamasiko yomhlaba wonke.
  • [[[ITL:0] U.S. Court yentela:[ izwa izingxabano phakathi kwabakhokhi bentela nenkonzo yezentengiselwano.
  • [ Inkantolo yokudlulisa Amacala yase-U.S. ye-Vetens isho ukuthi:[ Izinqumo ze-Department of Veterans Affairs mayelana nezinzuzo.

Lezi zinkantolo ezikhethekile zinikeza isinqumo samacala adinga ubuchwepheshe obuthile futhi ziqinisekise ukuthi asebenza ngokungaguquki ezicini zawo zomthetho.

INkantolo Ephakeme Yase - United States

INkantolo Ephakeme yase-United States iyinkantolo ephakeme kakhulu esimisweni sikahulumeni nenkantolo yokugcina yezindlela zomthetho kahulumeni nencazelo yomthetho-sisekelo. Yamiswa yiSiphakamiso III soMthetho-sisekelo, iNkantolo yaqala umsebenzi wayo ngo-1789 futhi kusukela ngaleso sikhathi iye yafeza indima ebalulekile ekulolongeni umthetho waseMelika nomphakathi. INkantolo ihlala egunjini lomphathi womthetho, futhi izinqumo zayo zibopha zonke ezinye izinkantolo zesizwe.

Ukuhlelwa Nokumiswa Kwendawo

INkantolo Ephakeme inezahlulelo ezingu-9: UMahluleli Oyinhloko noMahluleli Abangu 8 abaHlulelanayo. Inani lamajaji limiswe yiSishaya-mthetho futhi liye lahlala lineminyaka engu-9 kusukela ngo-1869. Amajaji amiswa nguMongameli futhi kumelwe aqinisekiswe iSigele.

Inqubo yokumisa ingokombangazwe futhi ngokuvamile ithanda ukuphikisana. Abaphathi bobumongameli bafuna abaphethe abavumelana nefilosofi yabo yokwahlulela, kanye nokuqinisekiswa kwezindaba zeSigele kuhlola izimfanelo zomnyumfene, imibono engokomthetho, nezindinganiso zokuziphatha. Uma sekuqinisekisiwe, amajaji ayakwazi ukususwa kuphela ngokujeziswa, amandla angakaze asetshenziswe ngokumelene nokwahlulela kweNkantolo Ephakeme.

UMahluleli oPhakeme uyinhloko yeNkantolo, oqondisa izimpikiswano zomlomo nemihlangano, obhala imibono lapho eseningini, futhi oqondisa ukuphatha kwezinkantolo zikahulumeni. UMahluleli Oyinhloko futhi uqondisa ukuqulwa kwamacala kamongameli eSigele.

Amandla Okubukeza Ukwahlulela

Amandla abaluleke kakhulu asetshenziswa yiNkantolo Ephakeme ukubukeza kokwahlulela: igunya lokumemezela imithetho nezenzo zezikhulu ngokungekhona kwemithetho. Lombuso wamiswa ecaleni eliyingqophamlando Marbury v. Madison (103] [1803], lapho uMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall abhala khona ukuthi "kugcizelela isifundazwe nomnyango wokwahlulela ukuthi uyini umthetho." Kusukela ngalesosikhathi, iNkakhulu isebenzise ukubukeza kokwahlulela ukuze ilahle amakhulu emithetho kahulumeni ne-ohulumeni, ilolonge imingcele yamandla kahulumeni nelungelo ngalinye.

Ukubukeza kokwahlulela akushiwo ngokuqondile kuMthetho-sisekelo, kodwa sekuyisimiso esiyisisekelo somthetho-mthetho-sisekelo waseMelika. Ukusetshenziswa kweNkantolo yokwahlulela kuye kwaholela kwezinye zezinqumo ezilandelanayo emlandweni wase-U.S., kuhlanganise Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo[ [1954], eyathi ukuhlukanisa kwezinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi akunazikho ezicansi, kanye bergefell v. Hodges [20]], eyaqaphela ukufaneleka komshado ofanayo.

Inqubo Ye - Certiorari

INkantolo Ephakeme ithola izicelo ezingaba ngu - 7 000 kuya ku - 8 000 zokubukeza igama ngalinye, kodwa ngokuvamile ilalela amacala angaba ngu - 80 kuya kwayikhulu. Icala elikhulu alibukezwa, kusho isinqumo senkantolo ephansi. INkantolo isebenzisa igunya lokulawula, ikhetha amacala okuwalalela nge-ceritari.

Inqubo ye-certiorari iqala ngokufaka isicelo esicela iNkantolo ukuba ibukeze isinqumo senkantolo esiphansi. Isicelo sidluliswa phakathi kwamajaji, ngamunye aphinde asibukeze ngosizo lomabhalane bawo. Icala linikezwa i-certiorari uma okungenani amajaji amane evota ukusilalela, umthetho owaziwa ngokuthi "umthetho wezine". Inkantolo ithambekele kakhulu ekunikezeni ukubukeza emacaleni ahilela izinqumo zesifunda empikiswaneni efanayo, anikeze umbuzo obalulekile womthetho kahulumeni, noma aphakamise impikiswano yomthetho-mthetho odinga isinqumo.

Uma i-certiorari isivunyiwe, abameleli bafaka izimpikiswano ezibhaliwe futhi baveza izimpikiswano phambi kweNkantolo. Khona - ke amajaji abese eveza ngasese, axoxe ngecala, futhi avote emphumeleni. Umbono weNkantolo ubuthwa ngomahluleli ogunyazwe yiJaji oMkhulu uma ekhulu uma uMahluleli oMkhulu ephikisanayo. Imibono ephikisayo ingabhalwa, kunikezwe okunye ukucabanga nemibono.

Izinqumo Zophawu Nethonya Lazo

Izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme ziye zahlela cishe zonke izici zokuphila kwaseMelika. Endaweni yamalungelo abantu ngabanye, iNkantolo iye yachaza izinga lenkululeko yokukhuluma, inkululeko engokwenkolo, ukuzifihla, nesivikelo esifanayo ngaphansi komthetho. Endaweni yenqubo yobugebengu, iNkantolo iye yamisa imithetho elawula ukuphenywa nokuthatheka, ilungelo lokululeka, nokunqanda ukubopha ukubopha ukuhlukana. Emkhakheni we-hulumeni, iNkantolo iye yabeka imingcele phakathi kwemingcele ephakathi kwezwe negunya likahulumeni.

Ezinye zezinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme ezinethonya elikhulu zihlanganisa ezithi:

  • Marbury v. Madison[[FL:1] (1803): ukubukeza kokwahlulela okumisiwe.
  • McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Ukuqinisekisa ukuphakama kukahulumeni kanye namandla asikiselayo oMkhandlu.
  • GEBBON v. Ogden (1824): Yandisa izinga legunya likahulumeni kwezentengiselwano zamazwe.
  • Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857): ubuzwe obungavunyelwe ama-Afrikan aseMelika, kamuva obuphendulwe yimpi yombango.
  • Plessy v. Ferguson (1996): Wathola ubandlululo ngaphansi kwemfundiso "yohlukene kodwa elinganayo", kamuva wagumbuqelwa Brown v. Ibhodi lemfundo[.
  • Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Ukuphoqelelwa komthetho okufunekayo ukwazisa abasolwa ngamalungelo abo ngaphambi kokuphenywa kwemvume.
  • Roe v. [[1] [772]): Waqaphela ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo lokukhipha isisu, kamuva wagumbuqelwa Dobs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization [2022].
  • I-Citizens United v.FEC (2010): Ivumelelwe ukusetshenziswa kwenkampani nenyunyana ekukhulumeni kwezombangazwe.

Ngasinye salezi zinqumo sibonisa incazelo eguquguqukayo yeNkantolo yoMthetho-sisekelo nokusabela kwayo ekushintsheni izimo zezenhlalo nezezombangazwe.

Ubuhlobo Phakathi Kwezinkantolo Zezwe Nezamanxusa

Ukuqonda indlela izinkantolo zikahulumeni nezikahulumeni ezisebenzelana ngayo kubalulekile ukuze kutholakale incazelo ephelele yesimiso sokwahlulela saseMelika. Isimiso sobukhosi obumbaxambili sisho ukuthi izinkantolo zikahulumeni nezikahulumeni zisebenza ngokuzimele ezicini zazo, kodwa amacala angahamba phakathi kwalezi zimiso ezimbili ezimweni ezithile.

Ukubusa Okuhlangene Nobuzwe

Izimiso zenkantolo zikahulumeni nombuso zikhona ngaphansi kwesimiso sombuso. Izinkantolo zoMbuso zinegunya elikhulu ezindabeni zomthetho kahulumeni, kuyilapho izinkantolo zikahulumeni zinegunya elilinganiselwe ezindabeni zikahulumeni. Izimpikiswano eziningi ezingokomthetho zixazululwa ezinkantolo zikahulumeni, ezisingatha amacala amaningi e-United States. Izinkantolo zeFederal zisingatha icala elincane kodwa elibalulekile elihilela imibuzo kahulumeni kanye nokubusa ngezindlela ezihlukahlukene.

Kwezinye izimo, iqoqo elilodwa lamaqiniso lingaveza kokubili ukusho kwezwe nombuso. Ngokwesibonelo, ukwephulwa kwamalungelo omphakathi kungaba okusebenzayo ngaphansi kwakho kokubili imithetho kahulumeni namalungelo omphakathi. Ezimweni ezinjalo, umbhishobhi angase akhethe ukubhala phansi enkantolo engokomthetho noma engokomthetho kahulumeni, noma kokubili ukusho enkantolo eyodwa uma inkantolo inegunya phezu kwakho kokubili.

Ukususa Ikhaya Nokuzigcina Usufile

Ama-parties ayakwazi ukulawula ukuthi icala liqulwa yini enkantolo kahulumeni noma kahulumeni. Ummangalelwa enkantolo kahulumeni ongase abekwe enkantolo kahulumeni angalisusa icala enkantolo yesifunda sesifunda sesifunda sesifunda inkantolo yesifunda lapho inkantolo kahulumeni ihlala khona. Lelilungelo lokususwa likhona emacaleni ahilela imibuzo kahulumeni noma ukubusa ngezindlela ezihlukahlukene. Uma lisusiwe, icala liqala enkantolo kahulumeni ngaphansi kwemithetho kahulumeni.

Ngokuphambene, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zingase zigweme ukusingatha amacala athile ahilela izindaba zikahulumeni ezingaxazululwanga, zibhekise izinkantolo zikahulumeni ukuze zinqume kuqala lezozindaba. Imfundiso yokunganaki, eyasungulwa ngezinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme, ibonisa izimiso zokuvumelana nokuhlonipha izimiso zenkantolo.

Izikhalo Ezivela Ezinkantolo ZoMbuso Ziyiswa ENkantolo Ephakeme

INkantolo Ephakeme inegunya lokubukeza izinqumo ezivela ezinkantolo eziphakeme zikahulumeni lapho lezo zinqumo zihilela umbuzo kahulumeni. Uma inkantolo kahulumeni inquma icala elisekelwe kumthetho kahulumeni noma kuMthetho-sisekelo, umbutho olahlekileyo angacela iNkantolo Ephakeme ukuba ithole imvume ye-certiari. Nokho, iNkantolo Ephakeme ngeke ibukeze izinqumo zenkantolo yenkantolo esekelwe ezisekelwe ezisekelwe ezisekelweni zomthetho ezifanele nezizimele zikahulumeni, okusho ukuthi incazelo yenkantolo yomthetho kahulumeni ibopha ibopha futhi ayidingi ukubukezwa kwezwe.

Leligunya elilinganiselwe elilawulayo liqinisekisa ukuthi iNkantolo Ephakeme isebenza njengommeli wokugcina womthetho kahulumeni ngaphandle kokungenela egunyeni lenkantolo yenkantolo ngemibuzo engokomthetho kahulumeni.

Okwenza Ukuqonda Ukumiswa Kwenkantolo Kube Yindaba

Kubafundi, othisha, ochwepheshe bezomthetho, izakhamuzi, ukuqonda isimo senkantolo kubalulekile ngenxa yezizathu eziningana. Okokuqala, kunikeza uhlelo lokuqonda indlela izingxabano ezingokomthetho ezixazululwa ngayo nendlela ukwahlulela okuphathwa ngayo. Okwesibili, kwenza abantu bakwazi ukusebenzisa isimiso somthetho ngokuphumelelayo, kungaba njengeqembu eliya enkantolo, enkantolo, noma embonini. Okwesithathu, kukhuthaza ukwazisa umthetho nendima yekomiti ezimele ekuvikeleni amalungelo nokulondoloza inhlalakahle.

Isimiso senkantolo asisona nje isimiso somthetho sobulungu; siyindlela yokuphila ethinta ukuphila kwesakhamuzi ngasinye. Enkantolo yendawo ephatha ithikithi lezimoto eNkantolo Ephakeme enquma ubukho bomthetho-mthetho kahulumeni, izinga ngalinye lejaji lifeza indima ebalulekile ekusekeleni izimiso zobulungisa nenqubo efanele. Ngokufunda ngalezinkantolo, abantu bangawaqonda kangcono amalungelo abo, imithwalo yabo yemfanelo, kanye nesimiso somthetho esibusa umphakathi wabo.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, ulwazi lwezinkantolo lubalulekile ekuthembiseni umphakathi. Izakhamuzi eziqonda isimiso sokwahlulela zihlonyiselwe kangcono ukuhlaziya abazokwahlulela, zihlanganyele ezingxoxweni eziphathelene nokuguqulwa kwenkantolo, futhi zisekela izinguquko ezithuthukisa ukufinyelela kobulungisa. Izinkantolo ziyigatsha likahulumeni elilinganayo, futhi ulwazi lwezakhamuzi lubalulekile ukuze zilondoloze ukuzibusa nokuphumelela kwazo.

Isiphetho

Isimiso senkantolo yaseMelika, kusukela ezinkantolo zendawo kuya eNkantolo Ephakeme, siyisakhiwo esiyinkimbinkimbi kodwa esivumelanayo esiklanyelwe ukukhipha ubulungisa ngendlela engaguquguquki nengakhethi. Izinkantolo zendawo zinikeza ubulungisa obufinyelelwe ezindabeni zansuku zonke, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zisingatha izikhangiso ezinkulu ezingathi sína, izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziqinisa imithetho yesizwe futhi zivikele amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo, futhi iNkantolo Ephakeme inegunya lokugcina ezindabeni zomthetho kahulumeni nencazelo yomthetho-mthetho. Izinga ngalinye lesimiso linemisebenzi ehlukile, izinqubo, nezindawo zobuchwepheshe, kodwa zonke zihlanganyela umgomo ofanayo wokusekela umthetho.

Ukuqonda lesi sigaba sokubusa akuyona nje indlela yokufunda. Kuyithuluzi eliwusizo kunoma ubani ongase asebenzelane nesimiso somthetho, kungaba njengekhemisi, ijaji, ufakazi, noma isakhamuzi esinolwazi. Izinkantolo ziyisisekelo sentando yeningi, futhi ukwazisa isakhiwo sazo nomsebenzi wazo kubalulekile ukuze ahlanganyele ngokugcwele ekuphileni komphakathi. Ngokufunda ngesimiso senkantolo, abantu bangawaqonda kangcono amalungelo abo, basebenzise izinqubo ezingokomthetho, futhi banikele emsebenzini oqhubekayo wokwakha umphakathi onobulungisa.