Isimiso sokuhlukanisa amagunya singenye yezindlela zokuvikela ezihlala njalo kuhulumeni ophathwe kabi emiphakathini yentando yeningi. Ngokuhlukanisa igunya phakathi kwamagatsha ahlukile − ngalinye elinemithwalo yalo yemfanelo nemibuso − lesisimiso sidala uhlelo lokuvimbela okuvikela inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye futhi siqinisekise ukuhlukanisa. Ngaphandle kokwahlukana okunjalo kokwakha, ngisho nohulumeni abazimisele kahle bangakhukhulekela ebushiqelani, amandla okugxilisa awezindlela ezilulaza amalungelo abo. Lesihloko sihlola isisekelo sefilosofi, izinhlelo ezisebenzayo, izifundo ezingokomlando, nezinselele zanamuhla zokuhlukanisa imibuso, zinikeza ukuqonda okubanzi ukuthi kungani le mbono ibalulekile ekuvimbeleni uhulumeni ukuba ucushe.

Isisekelo Sokuhlukana Kwamandla

Izimpande ezihlakaniphile zokwahlukana kwemibuso zisukela emuva kubantu abacabanga ngokukhanyiselwa abafuna ukunqanda ukusebenzisa igunya ngokungenangqondo. Isazi sefilosofi esingumFulentshi uMontesquieu, emsebenzini wakhe ka 1748 Umoya woMthetho [, sathi inkululeko yezombangazwe idinga ukuhlukaniswa kwemisebenzi kahulumeni phakathi kwemithetho yemithetho, isikhulu, namagatsha okwahlulela. Waxwayisa ukuthi “lapho izikhulu zemithetho nezikhulu zihlangene kumuntu oyedwa, noma endikimbeni efanayo yezimahluleli, ngeke ibe khona inkululeko." Ngokufanayo, uJohn Locke wayeye wahlukanisa ngaphambili phakathi kwemithetho, isikhulu, isikhulu, nesikhulu, isikhulu, isikhulu, isikhulu, isikhulu somthetho, sibeka isisekelo sikahulumeni esilinganiselwe.

Lemibono yathonya kakhulu abahleli boMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. uJames Madison, ku- u-Federalist No. 51, yabhala ngodumo ukuthi “ukuvelela kumelwe kwenziwe ukuze kulwisane nokufuna inhloso.” Waveza ukuthi ngokunikeza igatsha ngalinye ithuba nesisusa sokumelana nokungenela kwabanye, isimo sikahulumeni singakhelwa ukuzilawula ngokwaso. Ngaleyondlela uMthetho wadala amagatsha amathathu alinganayo, ngalinye linegunya elihlukile nekhono lokuhlola abanye ukuba bangaphumeleli kahle kodwa ukuze bathole inkululeko.

Ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso akuyona nje inqubo engokwesayensi; kuyisibopho sefilosofi embonweni wokuthi amandla agxile ayingozi. Lesi simiso manje sigcinwe emithethweni eminingi emhlabeni wonke, nakuba ukusetshenziswa kwayo kuhlukahluka. Ukuqonda izisekelo zayo kusiza izakhamuzi ukuba ziqonde ukuthi kungani kudingeka ukuqapha njalo ukuze kulondolozwe lokhu kulinganisela.

Amagatsha Amathathu Nendlela Ahlangana Ngayo

Igatsha Elingokomthetho: Izwi Labantu

Igatsha lemithetho linemisebenzi yokwenza imithetho. E-United States, lombuso uhlala eSishayamthetho, indikimba ye-baobal ehlanganisa iSigele nendlu yabameleli. Isakhiwo se-bidamaral ngokwaso siyi-cheke: iNdlu, enamagama aneminyaka emibili, isabela eduze emizweni ethandwayo, kuyilapho iSigeqe, esinezinqumo zeminyaka eyisithupha nezimpawu ezilinganayo esifundazweni ngasinye, sinikeza ukucubungula nokuqina. Imithetho kumele idlulise futhi isayinwe nguMongameli (noma i-veto) ukuze ibe umthetho. Lokhu kuyinkimbinkimbi kuqinisekisa ukuthi imithetho ibonisa ukuvumelana okukhulu kunokuba imelwane.

UKhongolose futhi uphethe amandla esikhwama semali nentela kahulumeni. Leligunya linikeza igatsha eliphethe intela inzuzo enkulu, njengoba kungekho mali engasetshenziswa ngaphandle kokuhlangana kwenhlangano. Ngaphezu kwalokho, iSigele kumelwe siqinisekise ukumiswa kwezikhulu eziyinhloko nezivumelwano ze-raifynce, sisebenza njengesehlo ekunqumeni umongameli.

Igatsha Eliphethe: Lishaya Imithetho

Igatsha eliphethe, eliholwa nguMongameli, linomthwalo wemfanelo wokusebenzisa nokumisa imithetho. UMongameli ukhonza njengoMphathi-iNkulumbuso wamabutho ahlomile, uqhuba inkambiso yangaphandle, futhi aqondise izinhlangano zikahulumeni. Ukuvimbela ukuphamba kwezikhulu, uMthetho-sisekelo unikeza iSishaya-Mkhandlu amandla okudlula umongameli kanye nenani eliyisithathu, ukulahla uMongameli “oMphathi woMbangi noMnumnumzane oPhakeme,” nokulahla izintambo.

Amandla anamuhla alawulayo aye anda kakhulu ngezinhlangano zezisebenzi, iziyalezo zezikhulu, nezimemezelo zezimo eziphuthumayo. Nakuba lamathuluzi engaphumelela ekuqondiseni, futhi asengozini yokungawasebenzisi amasu okuhlela imithetho. Isimiso sokuhlukanisa imibuso sidinga ukuba ukwanda okunjalo kuhlolwe futhi kuqondiswe ekwahlulelweni kwemithetho.

Igatsha Lokwahlulela: Umgadi Wobumthetho

Igatsha lokwahlulela lichaza imithetho futhi liqinisekisa ukuthi iyavumelana noMthetho-sisekelo. Ngamandla okwahlulela, asungulwe ecaleni eliphawulayo Marbury v. Madison (1803), izinkantolo zingashaya imithetho noma izenzo eziphethe eziphula amalungiselelo omthetho. Leligunya liyi-ehlolo oluyinhloko lomphathi kwamanye amagatsha. Abahluleli bamahlelo bamiswa ukuze baphile, bavikeleke ekucindezeleni kwezombangazwe futhi bavumele ukuba benze izinqumo ezingakhethi.

Izinkantolo zixazulula izingxabano phakathi kwamagatsha naphakathi kwezizwe, zigcine umthetho, futhi zivikele amalungelo abantu ngabanye. Nokho, amajaji ancike egatsheni eliphethe ukuze agunyaze imithetho yalo neyamaBhunga ukuba kuxhaswe ukusebenza kwalo, okuvimbela noma iliphi igatsha ukuba libuse.

Amasheke Nokulinganisela Okusetshenziswayo

Amasesha nezilinganiso yizinqubo ezisebenzayo ezenza ukuhlukanisa amandla kuphumelele. Akuzona izimiso ezingabonakali kodwa zingamathuluzi aqinile asetshenziswa nsuku zonke ekuqondiseni. Izibonelo eziyinhloko zihlanganisa:

  • I-Veto Power: UMongameli angakwenqaba umthetho, kodwa uMkhandlu ungadlulisa i-veto ngevoti yama-3 amabili emagumbini womabili.
  • Indlu ingayeqa uMongameli, amajaji, noma ezinye izikhulu zikahulumeni ngenxa “yomcabango, ukufumbathisa, noma ezinye izigebengu eziphakeme kanye nezingalawuli.” Khona - ke iSigele siqunga icala futhi singasusa izikhulu ngevoti eliphindwe kabili. Lenqubo yasetshenziswa ngokumelene noMongameli uAndrew Johnson, uBill Clinton, noDonald Trump, nakuba uJohnson noClinton kuphela bakhululwa eSihlalo.
  • Ukuqinisekisa: UMongameli umisa amajaji kahulumeni, onobhala bamakhathe, namanxusa, kodwa iSigele kumelwe sibaqinisekise. Lokhu kunikeza igatsha lomthetho izwi ekumiseni izikhulu.
  • Jodicial Review: INkantolo Ephakeme ingamemezela imithetho engavumelani nemithetho, njengoba yenza kuBrown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954) kanye ne [FLT]] Obergefell v. Hodges (2015). Lamandla ahlola ngokuqondile kokubili indlu yomthetho yendlu nesikhulu.
  • Isivumelwano nemvume: ISigele kumelwe sivume izivumelwano ngenani eliphindwe kabili-ntathu, siqinisekisa ukuthi izibopho zomhlaba wonke zibonisa ukusekela okukhulu.
  • Ukuqondisa okungalawuleki: Amakomiti ahlola izenzo zobuphathi, ukuqulwa kwecala, nokukhishwa kwezindaba. Leligunya lobubonisi libalulekile ekudaluleni ukuziphatha okubi, njengoba kubonakala phakathi nokuqulwa kwezindlebe zamanzi.

Lezi zinqubo azinakuvinjelwa. I-parsalishast, i-gridbock, nokuzibamba kwegunya eliphethe kungazenza buthaka. Ngokwesibonelo, ukuvama kweziqondiso zezikhulu kuye kwanda emashumini eminyaka amuva, ngezinye izikhathi kugwenywa iSishaya-Mkhandlu. Ngokufanayo, ukusetshenziswa kokumisa isikhashana nokuthatha isinyathelo sokuthutha nokuhweba kuye kwabangela izimpikiswano ngokuphambana. Noma kunjalo, isakhiwo sihlala siqinile uma izakhamuzi nezinhlangano zisivikela ngenkuthalo.

Izifundo Ezingokomlando: Lapho Ukuhlukana Kwamandla Kuhluleka

Umlando unikeza izixwayiso ezibuhlungu ngemiphumela yokuhlukana kwemibuso okuwohlokile.

I - Alien Ne - Sedition Acts (1798)

Idluliswa yiKhongolosi elawulwa yiFederallist Congress futhi yasayinwa nguMongameli John Adams, lemithetho yalahla uhulumeni ngokungemthetho futhi yenza kwaba nzima ngabafuduki ukuba babe yizakhamuzi. Izenzo zabonwa kabanzi njengokusetshenziswa kabi kwamandla ahloselwe ukuvimbela abaphikisi bezombangazwe. Umphakathi nokukhethwa kukaThomas Jefferson kwabonisa ukubaluleka kokuhlola okukhululekile nokukhetha. IzEnzo zaphelelwa isikhathi noma zabuyiselwa, kodwa zihlala ziyinganekwane ewukuxwayiswayo ngokukhohlakazwa kwemithetho yezehlulelo (ngesikhathi, iNkantolo Ephakeme ayizange ihlasele imithetho ezisekelweni ze-Gajimendementmentations).

Ukungenela KwamaJapane (1942)

Phakathi neMpi Yezwe II, uMongameli Franklin D. Roosevelt wakhipha u-Erder 906, egunyaza ukuthuthwa nokufakwa ngempoqo kwamaJapane angaphezu kwe-120 000, amaningi awo ayeyizakhamuzi zase-U.S. INkantolo Ephakeme yasekela inkambiso [ku- Koritatsu v. United States (11944) , ibhekisela ekuvikelweni kwegatsha eliphethe i-omkhakhathi. Lelicala manje lilahlwa kabanzi njengokuhluleka kwezokwahlulela nokuboniswa kwendlela ukwesaba okungaqeda ngayo isivikelo somthetho. Uhulumeni kamuva waxolisa futhi walungiselela ukuhlelwa kwezivumelwano, kodwa uveza isidingo sokuhlola ngisho nasezikhathini zenhlekelele.

I - Watergate Scandal (1972-1974)

I-Watergate yaqala ngokuphulwa kwesinqumo endlunkulu yeDemocratic National Committee futhi yakhula yaba uxhaxha lwegatsha eliphethe, kuhlanganise nokuvinjelwa kobulungisa, ukugqunywa komthetho, nokusetshenziswa kabi kwezinhlangano zokuhlakanipha. Uphengululo lwaseSikhundleni sama-Gatenal Watergate Committee, kanye nesinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme United States v. Nixon (1974) waphoqa ukukhutshwa kokuqoshwa kwamakhasethi, kwembula izinga lokuziphatha okungafanele komongameli. Ukungamela, uMongameli uRichard Nixon.gate depart.

Izibonelo Zanamuhla: Izimiso Eziqondisayo Nesenzo Esingekho

Emashumini eminyaka amuva nje, abaphathi bazo zombili izikhundla baye basebenzisa iziyalezo ezibukeziwe, umongameli we-trandada, nezimemezelo zokumisa inkambiso ngaphandle kokuvunyelwa kwe-conomilia. Ngokwesibonelo, ukuvinjelwa kweqembu lezokuhamba leTrump amazwe amaSulumane abhekene nezinselele ezingokomthetho, kodwa ekugcineni iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela uhlelo olubukeziwe Trump v. Hawaii (2016). Abagxeki baphikisa ukuthi ukuvinjelwa kweziphathimandla zezikhulu futhi baphula izimiso zemithetho engekho ngokwezikhundla. Ngokufanayo, i-Biden intethele intethelelo yabafundi yahlaselwa yiNkantolo yeNkantolo engokomthetho [FLD:2] engcono.[2002] [Foctivev] [Foctalson] [3], ngenxa yezikhulu zezikhulu zezikhulu zezo zezikhulu zezomthetho ezilawula izikhulu zezo zezomthetho ezikhontimenti.[3]

Umbono Wezizwe Zonke Ngokuhlukana Kwamandla

Nakuba i-U.S. ithonya, ezinye imibuso yentando yeningi iye yasungula izindlela zayo zokuhlukanisa amandla. Ngokwesibonelo, i-United Kingdom, isebenza ngaphansi kwesimiso sombuso wephalamende lapho umphathi (uNdunankulu nomphathi) ethathwa khona enqubeni ye-wistoms. Akukho ukuhlukana okuqinile − okungalawuleki, ukuhlanganiswa kwemibuso kuyisici esivelele, hhayi isiphazamiso − kodwa kuhlola ukuthi kukhona ngesiko eliqinile lokungathathi hlangothi lwenkonzo yomphakathi, umshini wokunyathelisa okhululekile, kanye nenkantolo yezikhulu ze-bukhomanishi. INkantolo Ephakeme ye-UK, eyasungulwa ngo-2009, ayinakubukeza izenzo zikahulumeni zomthetho kodwa ayinawo amandla okushaya phansi iPhala likamthetho (na nje kungazimemezela ukuthi isimilo esiqinile somthetho womthetho womphakathi).

ISicience Law yaseJalimane imisa irepublic kahulumeni enezivikelo eziqinile zomthetho-sisekelo. INkantolo ye-Federal Constitution inegunya elikhulu lokubukeza umthetho nesenzo sokuphatha, futhi imithetho yayo ibopha. IJalimane futhi iveza ivoti eyakhayo yokungathembi, evimbela umongameli ukuba asuswe ngaphandle kokuba olandela ukhethwa ngokushesha, andise ukuqina. Isimiso sezwe saseFrance esinemithetho elawulayo sihlukanisa amandla kamongameli nongqongqo omkhulu, noMkhandlu woMthetho-mthetho ukuze ubukeze imithetho. Le nguquko ibonisa ukuthi umqondo oyinhloko wokuhlola amandla ungaguqulwa ezinhlotsheni zezombangazwe ezihlukene.

Ukuqhathanisa lezizimiso kuqokomisa ukuthi akukho sibonelo esiphelele. Ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso okuphumelelayo akuxhomekile nje kuphela ekwakheni kodwa nasemkhubeni womthetho, izinkantolo ezizimele, nomphakathi womphakathi okhuthele. Amazwe lapho lezi zici zibuthakathaka khona − njengalawo anezigebengu ezikhethiwe noma amajaji athunjiwe.[1] Ngokuvamile uhulumeni ubhekana nokuphamba nokuxhashazwa kwamalungelo.

Izinselele Zanamuhla Nokuncipha Kokuhlola Nokulinganisela

Naphezu kwempumelelo yayo engokomlando, ukwehlukana kwemibuso kubhekene nezinsongo ezinkulu zamanje. Ukuhlukaniswa kwezombangazwe kuye kwaqinisa ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso, kwenza kube nzima kakhulu ngeKhomishane ukuba ifeze indima yayo yokwengamela. Uma iqembu elifanayo lilawula kokubili umongameli noMkhandlu, ukuhlola kwemithetho ngokuvamile kuyantengantenga, njengoba kubonakala phakathi nezikhathi zikahulumeni ezinobunye.

Ukwanda kwezwe lokuphatha kuphakamisa izinselele. Amanxusa ahlangene agunyaza imithetho, isikhulu, nemisebenzi yokwahlulela: abhala imithetho (Asisi-legisitititi), ayiphoqelele (i-quasi-execative), futhi afake izimpikiswano (i-quasi-judicial). Lokhu kubekwa amandla ngaphakathi kwenhlangano eyodwa kungadlula iziphetho ezingokwesiko. Izinkantolo zibuye zahlehlela emuva, ngesinqumo samuva seNkanto ePhakathi iWest Virginia v. EPA2222)[FL:] futhi [FLF:] Bright Enterprise.VPims. [202] [20] [2]

Inqubo yokwahlulela iye yathatheka kakhulu, izimpi ezilwiwa nabashokobezi eNkantolo Ephakeme ziqeda ukuqiniseka komphakathi. Ukusetshenziswa kwe-Divbuster eNkabeni kanye nosongo lokufaka “inkantolo” kuphakamisa ukukhathazeka ngokuzimela kwejaji. Okwamanje, ukusebenzisa kwegatsha eliphethe amandla aphuthumayo, njengokumemezela izimo eziphuthumayo zesizwe ukuqondisa imali (isisho umklomelo), kuye kwavivinya imikhawulo yomthetho.

Lezinselele zidinga ukunakwa njalo. Ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso akukona ukuzibulala; kuxhomeke ezimisweni ezingokwezemfundo, ezingokomthetho, nasekwenzeni izakhamuzi isithembiso sokusebenza. Njengoba isimo sezombangazwe sishintsha, isimiso kumelwe sizivumelanise nezimiso zaso zokusungula.

Indima Yezakhamuzi Ekusekeleni Ukuhlukana Kwamandla

Izakhamuzi zingabavikeli abayinhloko bokubusa komthetho-sisekelo. Abantu abanolwazi nabakhuthele bangavimbela uhulumeni ukuba uphathwe ngokubeka izikhulu ezikhethiwe ukuba zilandise futhi zivikele imingcele yezinhlangano. Izenzo eziyinhloko zihlanganisa:

  • Ukukhetha okhethweni: Ukukhetha abameleli abahlonipha ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso futhi abazimisele ukubekela inselele ukuphambana kwesikhulu noma ukunqabela umthetho.
  • Ukuqonda indlela uhulumeni asebenza ngayo, kuhlanganise nezindima zegatsha ngalinye kanye nezinqubo zokuhlola nokulinganisa. i-Nonpartisan imithombo yemali enjenge [[[FLT]] I-Constitution Anotection[ inikeza isiqondiso esinegunya.
  • Ithumela umshini wezindaba ongakhokhwa: isebenza njenge-“ndawo yesine” ehlola futhi idalule ukusetshenziswa kabi kwemithetho. IJournal ehlanganisa izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme, ukuqondisa kwenhlangano, nezenzo zezikhulu zisiza ukuba umphakathi uhlale wazisiwe.
  • Ukusekela ukuba sobala: Imithetho enjengenkululeko yolwazi (FOIA) ne-umnyango wezimfuneko zomhlangano kwenza izakhamuzi zikwazi ukuqaphela imisebenzi kahulumeni. Ukusunduzwa kwemithetho yezimiso eziqinile nezimfuneko zokuveza izimpawu kunciphisa ingozi yokuphamba okufihlekile.
  • Ukuhlanganyela emphakathini womphakathi: Amaqembu angenanzuzo, amaqembu alwayo, kanye nokuhlangana kwebhar kungafaka i-amicus ezicini zenkantolo, ukusekela inguquko, futhi ufundise umphakathi. Izibonelo ezingokomlando zihlanganisa i-John Adams Project [[FLT:] [[FLT]]] kanye ne- i-Liberties Union (ACLU) inses ukuvanyanisa ukuvalwa nokuqanjelwa okungavunyelwe umthetho.

Izakhamuzi kumelwe futhi zihlale zingabaza ukunxusa kwesimo esiphuthumayo noma ukulondeka kwesizwe okuthethelela amandla okugxilisa ingqondo. Ukufakwa kwamaJapane nezinhlelo zokuhlola zangemva kwe-99/11 kubonisa ukuthi ngisho nedemokrasi ingasabela ngokweqile. Ukuqapha kwezakhamuzi kuwumshuwalense ongcono kakhulu ekukhukhulekeni kwezivikelo zomthetho-sisekelo.

Isiphetho

Ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso akuyona into engokomlando kodwa uhlelo oluphilayo okumelwe lulondolozwe futhi luvikelwe. Injongo yalo akukhona ukwenza uhulumeni uphumelele, kungukwenza uhulumeni ulondeke. Ngokuhlukanisa igunya phakathi kwamagatsha angahlolana futhi alinganisane, lesi simiso sivimbela noma iyiphi into eyodwa ekuqongeleleni amandla okuncintisana amalungelo ayo. Ukusukela emibhalweni yokukhanyiselwa yaseMontesquieu kuya ezimpikiswaneni zokwakha ze-Constitunical Convention, isimiso siye sahlala ngoba iyasebenza.

Nokho isizukulwane ngasinye sibhekene nezinsongo ezintsha: ukuncishiswa kwezokuhlola nokulinganisela kwezisebenzi, ukuphaphanyiswa kwezahlulelo, noma ukumiswa kwemithetho. Ukuhlolwa kweAlien neSigqizo seMibukiso, i-internation yaseJapane, iWatergate, nezenzo zezikhulu zanamuhla kusikhumbuza ukuthi ukuqapha akupheli. Izindlela zokuhlola nokulinganisela zinamandla kuphela njengabantu nezinhlangano ezisebenza kubo. Izakhamuzi ezingenzi lutho, ingqungqungquthela eqinile, noma i-protheni ye-judiciary i-palciary ingasilulaza sonke isimiso.

Ukuze kulondolozwe inkululeko, kumelwe siqonde ukwahlukana kwemibuso hhayi njengento engabonakali kodwa njengethuluzi elisebenzayo lokulandisa. Ngokuhlala sinolwazi, sivota, sihlanganyela nomphakathi, futhi sisekele izinhlangano ezizimele, izakhamuzi zingaqinisekisa ukuthi lesi simiso sesisekelo siyaqhubeka sivikela kuhulumeni ophakele. Njengoba uJames Madison abhala [FLT][FLT]] [1] Umdwebi wobubaba. [FLT][FLT][FLT], “ukube abantu bebengadingeka, akukho hulumeni. Ukuba izingelosi bezingabusa abantu, futhi bekungeke kudingeke ukuba izingelosi zilawule abantu, noma zilawule ngaphandle noma uhulumeni." ukwahlukana kwemibuso yangaphakathi bekulokhu kuyimfuneko kakhulu.