Ifa Elihlala Njalo Lesivikelo SikaClaus Esilinganayo

I-Umeal Protection Claus, etholakala eCate 1 yeSichibiyelo seshumi nane soMthetho-sisekelo we-United States, ingenye yamalungiselelo anamandla kakhulu naphikiswayo e-Umthetho-sisekelo waseMelika. Iyala ukuba kungabikho mbuso “ozokwenqabela noma yimuphi umuntu onegunya lokuvikela okulinganayo kwemithetho.” Lo myalo olula kodwa ojulile uye wasebenza njengendawo engokomthetho yokulwa isikhathi eside ukuze isizwe sifeze isithembiso saso sokulingana. Kusukela ekunqandeni uJim Crow intenterry ekulondolozeni isilinganiso somshado, i-agnomenti ye-mode yemithetho ebekela inselele. Ukuqonda imvelaphi yaso, ukuziphendukela kwemfundiso, nezicelo zanamuhla zibalulekile kunoma ubani ofuna ukuqonda amalungelo esizwe aseMelika.

Imisuka Engokomlando: Ukuvuselelwa Nokuzalwa Kwesithembiso

I-Umeal Protection Claus yazalwa ngo-1868, iSichibiyelo seshumi nane sasiyingxenye yeziNguqulo zeSichibiyelo se-Reconstructon ezaziklanyelwe ukuhlanganisa abantu ababekade beyizigqila nesizwe saseMelika. I-Umeal Protection Codes . Imithetho yayiyimpendulo eqondile edluliswa amazwe aseNingizimu aqinisekisa ukuthi imingcele yaseMelika yaseMelika yayivalela kakhulu inkululeko yamaZwe aseAfrika, ibacindezela ukuba basebenzele izivumelwano zemisebenzi, ilinganisele amalungelo abo empango, futhi inqabela ukuba bangene ezinkantolo. Lemithetho yakwenza kwacaca ukuthi ukuqeda nje ubugqila (ngeSiphendulo se-Hafu Yesithathu) kwakungena. Isiqinisekiso somthetho sasidingeka ukuqinisekisa ukuthi bonke abantu, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi izinhlanga, babezothola ukuphatha okusemthethweni njengezakhamuzi ezimhlophe.

Phakathi nenkathi yokuvuselelwa kweNkathi, iSishaya-mthetho sadlulisa futhi izenzo zomphakathi ukuze kuqiniswe lezi zivumelwano ezintsha zomthetho-sisekelo, kodwa iNkantolo Ephakeme yaqale yachaza lo mbhalo ngokulinganiselwe. Icala lendlu yokuhleka (1873] [18]), iNkantolo yalinganisela ukufinyelela kwamalungelo eSivumelwaneni seSichibiyelo se 1450 noma ama-Immunitunic Claus, iphoqelela ukusekela ukulingana ngokuyinhloko kwiSivikelo soMnyango olinganayo ne-Clausss. Lokhu kwahlulela kubeka isigaba sebanga lokuthatha uhambo olude nolungalinganiyo lokuchaza − uhambo olubona umngcele wombili ukhashelwa nohlengiwe.

Ukukhashelwa [[QUL:0] Pneby v. Ferguson

Emashumini eminyaka ngemva kokuvuselelwa, i-Uncime Protection Claus yahlala ingasebenzi kakhulu. [FLT] Pnety v. Ferguson (1996] , iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela umthetho kaLouisiana ofuna ukuba i-Louisiana ihlelwe ngokwezinhlanga, imisa izimoto zesitimela ezidume kabi “ezilinganayo” imfundiso. Inkantolo yacabanga ukuthi i-flomfo akuzange kusho ukuthi iphansi njengezakhiwo ezilinganayo. Yebo, izakhiwo ezilungiselelwe abantu baseAfrika zaziphansi cishe ngaso sonke isikhathi. Lesi sinqumo sasingekho ngokuphumelelayo isivikelo esilinganayo uClaus eminyakeni ecishe engu-6, ukulungiselela isimiso se-Gropotional comgamcolo-yond: Cimrow.

Plessy isikhumbuzo esiqinile sokuthi umbhalo womthetho-sisekelo wodwa awunakuqinisekisa ukulingana. Izindaba zokwahlulela kakhulu. Incazelo yayingezona izishwabalele; yayidinga abahluleli abazimisele ukuyinikeza okunencazelo. Lowo kuzimisela ngeke kuvele kuze kube phakathi nekhulu leminyaka lekhulu leminyaka lekhulu leminyaka lekhulu eliphakathi, lapho umkhankaso ongokomthetho owenziwe ngekhonsathi ye-NACP esemthethweni, ukhishwe yiNaACP Levince Fund-* ngendlela egobelwe ngesisekelo ezisekelwe ezisekelweni ze-CPUR.

Icala Lenkantolo Ephakeme: Ukuyeka Ukuhluka Kuya Ekulinganayo

Indaba yanamuhla ye-Uncime Protection Claus ilandiswa kangcono kakhulu ngezindaba eziphawuliwe ezichaze indlela esukela ngayo. Lezi zinqumo zaguqula isisho sencwadi ecishe ibe yithuluzi elinamandla lokubekela inselele.

Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (11954)

Mhlawumbe esinqumweni seNkantolo edumile kakhulu emlandweni waseMelika, [FLT] v. Ibhodi yemfundo isho ngazwi linye ukuthi ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi kwakukungavumelani nemithetho. ISikhulu seSikhulu seSizwe u-Earl Warren sabhala ukuthi “izakhiwo zemfundo ezihlukene azilingani,” ukwenqaba [[FLT:]] ukwakheka [[FLT:] [[FLT]] . INkanto yathola ukuthi ukunciphiswa kwesimilo kwezingane zaseAfrika zaseMelika okungasoze kwalungiswa ngezindlela ezilinganayo. [FLD:6] BBB] BB2] B2] umgangatho wezenziwa ngokushesha izikole zeze izikole zezezeze futhi zanikezwa izikole ezingoko ezingoko ezingoko ezingoko ezingoko ezifanele ukuhlolwayo zonke izingamele ukuhlolwayo. [izo zohlanga ezihambisana.[FL:]

Ukukhula Kwezinga Lokufunda

Ngemva Brown, iNkantolo yakha uhlelo olunezinhlandla lokuhlaziya izisho ezilinganayo zokuvikela. Lolu hlelo lunquma ukuthi inkantolo izowuhlola ngokuseduze kangakanani umthetho obekelwe inselele osekelwe ekwakhekeni okusekelwe ekuhlelweni (umz., uhlanga, ubulili, ubulili, ukuma kobulili).

  • Scrutiny: Isebenziselwe ukuhlelwa okusekelwe ngokohlanga, umsuka wesizwe, kanye nokungahlanga. Umthetho kumelwe ube “ohlotshiswe ngokungenamdla” ukuze ukhonze isithakazelo sikahulumeni.” Lena indinganiso enzima kakhulu; imbalwa kakhulu imithetho esindayo.
  • I-Intermedite Scrutiny: Ihloselwe ukuhlelwa okusekelwe ebulilini nasebunzimeni. Umthetho kumelwe ukuba “kuhlobene” ne“sithakazelo sikahulumeni esibalulekile.” Lelizinga laqala ukuchazwa [FLT]] Craig v. Boren[ [6] [6], okuye kwabulala umthetho we-Oklama [i-6], owavumela abesifazane ukuba bathenge 3.2% utshwala ngeminyaka engu-182] kodwa befuna amadoda abe ngu-21.[FLT]
  • Rational Basiss Review: Indinganiso enephutha kwezinye izigaba eziningi (umzk., ubudala, umcebo, ukukhubazeka). Umthetho udinga “ukuhlobana ngokuxhunyiwe” nesithakazelo sikahulumeni esihlangeneyo.” Lokhu kuhambisana kakhulu nezishayano zezishaya - mthetho.

Amanye Amacala Ayinhloko: Ubulili, Umshado, Nenkululeko

.[FLT'] [1973] kuxoxwa kaningi njengendaba yemfihlo, kodwa umbono wabaningi ku [[[FLT:]] Roe[ futhi wakhuluma ngezindaba ezivikela ngendlela efanayo ngabesifazane. [[FLT:] [[FLT]] [[FLT]] [[7]] [ocfellb] v. Hodges[[FLT:]] (20][[FLT:]]] , iNkathi iSivumelo sisekelo siqinisekisa ukuthi imibhangqwana efanayo-edexterne.[10]

Elinye icala elibalulekile yile [FLT] United States v. Virginia (1996] , lapho iNkantolo yashaya khona iVirginia Military Institute yabesilisa kuphela ukuvuma umthetho. Inkantolo yenza ukuhlolwa kwaphakathi futhi yafuna umbuso ukuba unikeze ukulunga okunamandla” ngokwezigaba ezisekelwe ebulilini. Ukuhluleka kwe-VMI ukwenza kanjalo kuholele ekuvulweni kwabesifazane. Lelicala libonisa ukuthi ngisho nokuhlola okuphakathi kungaba namandla uma kusetshenziswa ngokuqinile.

Ukuhlobanisa Nokufinyelela Isivikelo Esilinganayo

Intuthuko ebaluleke kakhulu yemfundiso ihlanganiswa ne-[FLT][FLT]] v. [[FLT] v [1954] ISichibiyelo seNdlela Yesihlanu siqukethe ingxenye elinganayo yesivikelo. [Minye ibizwa ngokuthi] [[FLT:] [[FLT:]] [[FLT]] [1] [1] Blunglting v. [[FLT] [1954]] [isimiso se-FT], inquma usuku olufanayo [[FLT:] [[FLT]] [2], ihla iNkahla esifundeni saseziko le Coortsniclove.

Izimpikiswano Zanamuhla Nezindawo Ezinwebekayo

I - Expande Protection Claus iyaqhubeka ibangela impikiswano enkulu njengoba umphakathi ubhekana nezinhlobo ezintsha zobandlululo nokungalingani.

Isenzo Esiqinisayo

Zimbalwa izindawo zomthetho olinganayo wesivikelo eziphikisana nokuvuma isenzo . izikhulu ezibheka uhlanga njengesici esisemdlalweni wokungena eyunivesithi noma kuhulumeni ozama ukulungisa ukucwaswa. [FLT]][FLT]] [[FLT]] [1] i-Regns of the University of California v. Bakke[[[FLT:]][FLT]] [12] [12] [izingxenye] [i-FLT] [ingxenye], iNkanto ekholelwa ukuthi isilinganiso sohlanga asisebenzi ngokweziqu zobuhlanga kodwa ukuthi ingendlela eyodwa kweziningi ezikhona.[12], lokhu kugcizelela inzuzo, ukuhlukahluka kwezimiso.[FFT][FFFF][10][3]

Ukuphambanisa Amalungelo Nokuxuba Izinhlanga

Isigaba siye sayibekela inselele yemithetho yokuvota. Inkantolo ePhakamileyo iye yasebenzisa isivikelo esifanayo ekubulaleni i-gerrymanders yohlanga oluphakathi, lapho imigqa yesigodi idwetshwe khona ukuze inciphise amandla okuvota amancane (][[FLT]]][FLT]]] Shnov. [[FLT] [1993]] [[FLT]] [[FLT]][FLT][FLT]] [[FLT]]] [[5]]] Icala eliwuthiyomfame Elingalelayo-Blawulike.[[[FLT] [[FLT]] [FLT] [i Foct:] [isekelele isivikelo] [[3] i-off] i-activerderstions , iphinde ibeke i-offactive.[10]

I - LGBTQ+ Amalungelo Angemva Komshado

Nakuba [[FLT: 0] wahlela ukulingana komshado, ezinye izinhlobo zokucwasa ne LGBTQ + abantu kusaphikiswana. [[FLT]] Amacatempop v. iColorado Common Rights Commission [2018]] , iNkanto evumela umbhaki webhaki owayenqaba ukudala ikhekhesi lomshado lombhangqwana ofanayo, kodwa isinqumo sashintsha izinkolelo zomphini wombhaki siselele ngokomthetho wenkolo kunokuba ibalale. Inkantolo inquma ukuthi isimo sobulili nokwehlukaniswe ngaphansi kwezentengo yezentebelo. U-Clauble uyaqhubeka ephila. Umbuzo owenzile.

Ukwahlulela Kobugebengu Nokungalingani Kwezomnotho

Izimpikiswano zokuvikela ezilinganayo ziphakanyiswa kakhulu ngokomongo woshintsho lobulungisa bezephula-mthetho. Kusukela ekuthatheni isigwebo sobuhlanga kuya ekugwebeni okungalingani, abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi lesi simiso siphatha abamangalelwa abampofu nabambalwa ngokungenakulinganiswa. Nokho, iNkantolo Ephakeme ngokomlando ibinqikaza ukusebenzisa ukuhlolwa okukhulu kokuhlelwa kwengcebo, ishiye iziphakamiso eziningi ezingokomnotho zisekelwe ekuhlolweni ngokunengqondo. Lokhu kuzithoba kobuhlanga kuya ngokuphindiwe, kodwa lomthetho uyaqhubeka ucelwa ngezinselele zokukhokha imali, izinkokhiso, kanye nenkongozelo ezithi ezithisela abampofu.

Imishini Esetshenziswa Kuwo: Indlela Isivikelo Esilingana Ngayo

Ukuze iqonde ukuthi izinkantolo zibheka kanjani isivikelo esifanayo, kuwusizo ukudlula phakathi kwesimiso esivamile se-alytical. Iqembu elithile kumelwe liqale libonise ukuthi umthetho uhlukanisa abantu ngendlela ethile, futhi kusho ukuthi uphatha abantu ngendlela ehlukile. Inkantolo inquma izinga lokuhlola elisebenza ngokusekelwe ekuhlolweni okuhilelekile noma ukuthi ilungelo eliyisisekelo lisengozini.

Uma isigaba sibhekene “nesigaba se-suspect” (uhlobo, umsuka wezwe) noma umthwalo obizwa ngokuthi“ilungelo elibalulekile” (ukuhamba nge-panet, ukuhamba ngasese, ukuzihlola okuqinile), kuyasebenza. Uma uhlelo lukhomba isigaba se-“quasi-suspect". (uhlobo, ukuhlola okuphakathi), kuyasebenza. Zonke ezinye izigaba zithola isisekelo esinengqondo.

Abanye baphikisa ngokuthi inikeza amajaji ukuhlakanipha okukhulu kakhulu ukuba anqume ukuthi yimaphi amaqembu afanelwe isivikelo. Abanye bathi awenakubhekana nobandlululo lwamaqembu ahlukene, olufana noluthi Black , noma ngamaqembu amaningi ampofu. Naphezu kwalamaqembu anezinhlalo, izinhlolo ezihlolwayo zihlala ziwumthetho ophakeme ovikelayo.

Imibono Yomhlaba Wonke Ngesivikelo Esilinganayo

Nakuba i-Uncimeal Protection Claus ingowaseMelika eyingqayizivele, izimiso zayo zikhona emhlabeni wonke. Umthetho - sisekelo wanamuhla uhlanganisa iziqinisekiso ezifanayo zokulingana phambi komthetho. Ngokwesibonelo, Ingxenye engu - 15 yeSigqebhezana se-Canada Samalungelo nenkululeko iqinisekisa amalungelo okulingana, futhi iSigqebhezana soMthetho-sisekelo waseNingizimu Afrika samalungelo abantu sihlanganisa izisho ezilinganayo ezivimbela ukucwasana ngezizathu eziningi, kuhlanganise nobuhlanga, ubulili, ukukhulelwa, isikhundla somshado, ibala, isizinda sobulili, inkathi, ukukhubazeka, inkolo, inkolelo, isiko, isiko, ulimi, nokuzalwa. Lezi zivame ukukhuthaza ukuvela kolwazi oluphawulekayo lwezimfundiso zaseMelika kodwa futhi zinezenzakalo zazo ezivelele.

Izinkantolo zomhlaba wonke, njengeNkantolo YaseYurophu Yamalungelo Abantu, nazo zilwa nezindaba zokuvikela ezifanayo ngaphansi kweSiphakamiso 14 se - European Convention on Human Rights.

Izinselele Nokugxeka

Naphezu kwendima yayo eyinhloko, i-Uncincible Protection Claus ayinamingcele. I-critique eyodwa eqhubekayo iyimfuneko yayo yesenzo sombuso : lesi sigqebhezana sisebenza kuphela ekuziphatheni kukahulumeni, hhayi ekucwaseni ngasese. Lokhu kusho ukuthi ngaphandle kwekhambi lomthetho, abantu bangase bangabi nazibophi zomthetho ngokumelene nomqashi wangasese, umninikhaya, noma ibhizinisi elihlukanisayo. INkanto iqaphele ngaphandle kwalapho abadlali abazimele bebalwa khona nohulumeni kangangokuba izenzo zabo ziba yizenzo zikahulumeni zombuso, kodwa lezi zinswela.

Okunye ukugxeka yisisho se- sakuqala. Abanye abahluleli bakuqala baphikisa ngokuthi abakhi beSichibiyelo se 14 sihloselwe ukunqabela kuphela ukucwaswa kohlanga, hhayi ukucwaswa okusekelwe ebulilini, okobulili, noma kwezinye izizathu. Lombono unciphisa ukufinyelela kwemigqa. Nokho, izazi eziningi zomthetho nezahluleli zikhetha “umthetho ophilayo”, uphikisa ukuthi ulimi olubanzi lwesivikelo luvumela ukuhlanganiswa kwezincazelo ezintsha zokungabi nabulungisa.

Ekugcineni, isisho sigxekwe ngokulinganiselwa kwayo okungaqondakaliyo. Ngisho noma inkantolo ithola ukwephulwa okulinganayo kokuzivikela, ukwenza ikhambi eliphumelelayo kuyinselele. Ngokwesibonelo, ngemva , i-Brown[, ukunqamuka kwemithetho kwaqhubeka kancane futhi kwavame ukumelana kakhulu. Muva nje, izinkantolo ziye zazama ukuxazulula ukuhlukana kwezimiso zobuhlanga embusweni nasebugwemeni bomthetho obufanayo, obungavikelekile futhi obungasayinwa.

Isiphetho: Umsebenzi Ongancishisiwe Wokulingana

I-Uncimel Protection Claus ihlala iyisivikelo nenkemba ekufuneni ubulungisa okuqhubekayo. Ulimi lwayo lulula, kodwa lusho lukhulu. Kusukela kuma-Black Code of Reconstlon kuya ekufezekeni kwempikiswano yanamuhla, i-rediction ibilokhu iyinhloko yemibango ejulile kakhulu yokuziphatha nengokomthetho. Iye yacelwa ukuba ikhucubulise ukuhlukanisa, ivikele amalungelo okuvota, ukulingana kwabesifazane, futhi ivikele isithunzi sika LGBTQ+ abantu ngabanye. Kodwa umsebenzi awukapheli. Izinselele ezintsha `eziwubandlululo, ukuhlakanipha kokwenziwa, nokuchazwa okungokomthetho wendawo ezungezile. Ifuna ukuchazwa okusha kwalokho okudinga isivikelo ekhulwini leminyaka lamashumi amabili namashumi amabili nambili lokuqala.

Amandla aleligama awakho ezimpendulweni ezimisiwe kodwa asemandleni ayo okukhula ngokokuziphatha. Njengoba uMahluleli uThur Good Marshall abhala, “UMthetho-sisekelo awukunqabeli ukusetshenziswa kokwahlukaniswa kohlanga; unqabela ukusetshenziswa kobuhlanga ngenjongo yokulondoloza ukungalingani kohlanga.” Lokho kuhlukanisa phakathi kwesilinganiso sokulingana nje kwemithetho esemthethweni kanye nokulingana njengobulungisa obungalinganiyo, kuhlala kusemqoka okuyinhloko kokuvikela isivikelo esifanayo. Izakhamuzi, abameleli, nabahluleli kumelwe bahlale beqaphilele ukuqinisekisa ukuthi umngcele uhlala ulingana nesithembiso sawo kubo bonke abantu abaseburhulumenteni be-United States.

Ukuze uqhubeke ufunda, hlola i-Cornell Information ye-Cornell Istitution echaza isivikelo esifanayo[, i-'Oyez Project yeqoqo lezehlakalo zeNkantolo Ephakeme[[, kanye ne-[FLT] i-Chonsitution Ancotedment’s i-Reformation ye-14 .[[FLT]]