Isisekelo Somlando NeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nanye

Imfundiso yokuvikela uhulumeni ekuzimela imibuso yomthetho eqinile eMthethweni wesiNgisi, lapho uMbuso ungenakuquliswa khona ngaphandle kwemvume yawo. I-United States yafaka lesi simiso esisezingeni likahulumeni ngeSichibiyelweni seshumi Nenye, sagunyazwa ngo-1795. I-mendement ithi: "Amandla okwahlulela e-United States angeke athathwe ukuba adlulisele kunoma isiphi isambatho, emthethweni noma eqenjini owe-mthetho, noma ebekwe noma icala komunye we-United States ngezakhamuzi zeZwe elithile, noma izakhamuzi noma iZibopho zanoma yisiphi iZwe Langaphandle." Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, iNkanto ePhakakhulu i-Propowe ichaza iSichime seSichimende seSiphakamende sezwe ukuthi ifanele igwenywe kahle izakhamuzi zayo, ngaphandle kokuba imvume noma imvume yombuso noma i-Hundre.

Izehlakalo eziyinhloko zihlanganisa Hans v. Louisiana (1890), eyayithi isakhamuzi asinakumangalela isimo saso siqu enkantolo kahulumeni ngaphansi kweSiphendulo seshumi nanye, kanye Alden v. Maine [1999], eyandisa ukuzivikela kobukhosi enkantolo ngokwezilinganiso zikahulumeni. Inkantolo yaphetha ngokuthi isakhiwo soMthetho-sisekelo sivumelana nombuso wezwe. Ukuze uthole ulwazi oluningiliziwe lwalezi zisekelo zomthetho, bona i-Entelligementationtiontiontions profectives [Foct5]

Nokho, lokhu kugonyelwa akuphelele. Izwe lingasiphazamisa isimiso sokuvikela ngokuvuma, futhi iSishaya-mthetho singasivikela ekuzilawuleni ngaphansi kwegunya elithile lokuphoqelela, njengengxenye 5 yeSichibiyelo seshumi nane. Kodwa iNkantolo Ephakeme ibeke imingcele eqinile ekuhlinzeni kwengqungquthela, ikakhulukazi emacaleni ahilela ukulimala kwangasese. Ukuqonda lemingcele engokomthetho kubalulekile ekuhloleni icala leminyango yamaphoyisa kahulumeni.

Izinga Lombuso OnguMbusi Namuhla

Isimiso sokuzivikela sobuso obuzimele sanamuhla sidlulela ezinhlanganweni zikahulumeni, kuhlanganise neminyango yamaphoyisa kahulumeni, amayunivesithi kahulumeni, nezinye izikhali zikahulumeni. Umbuzo obalulekile kunoma isiphi isigebengu esimangalela umnyango wamaphoyisa kahulumeni ukuthi ummangalelwa uyi-"ihloko lombuso" elifanele ukugonyelwa. Izici zihlanganisa indlela lenhlangano exhaswe ngayo, emisa ngayo umholi wayo, nokuthi isahlulelo singavela yini emphongweni wezimali kahulumeni.

Iminyango eminingi yamaphoyisa kahulumeni isebenza ngaphansi kokulawulwa ngokuqondile kohulumeni bakahulumeni, ibenza izikhali zikahulumeni ngenxa yezinjongo zeSichibiyelo seshumi nanye. Ngenxa yalokho, ayinakumangalelwa enkantolo kahulumeni ngaphandle kwemvume kahulumeni. Lokhu kunjalo nasezinkantolo eziningi zikahulumeni, lapho ngokuvamile kuboniswa khona isivikelo sombuso sokuzivikela kombuso esilawula umthetho.

Nokho, kunezinto ezibalulekile ezihlukile. Umbuso ungaphazamisa ukugoma ngemithetho engokomthetho, njengesenzo sokuzisholo. Izifundazwe eziningi ziye zasungula izijezi ezilinganiselwe ezivumela amasudi ezezenzo zokunganaki kodwa zigcine ukuvikeleka kwamatort ngamabomu. Ngaphezu kwalokho, izifunda zingavuma ukuvumelana nemibandela ethile, njengangaphansi kwemibandela yokwamukela imali kahulumeni (umz., ukuze zithole izinhlelo zokuphepha emgwaqweni). Abaqondisi-mthetho okhethekile wokuzivikela kwezindawo zombuso ngamunye ngaphambi kokuba bafake imvume.

Izenzo Nezigebengu Zezimemezelo Zikahulumeni Zithi

I-Federal Tort Actips Act (FTCA) inikeza isibonelo sezenzo zikahulumeni zokuzisholo (TCS). Ngaphansi kwe-FTCA, uhulumeni uvimbela ukuvikela amasudi ngenxa yezenzo zezeqili noma ezingalungile zezisebenzi ezisebenza ngokuqeshana kwazo. Ngokufanayo, izikhulu zika-California, New York, ne-Texas ziye zamisa i-TC ebanzi evumela ukuba kungenelwe izinhlangano zikahulumeni, kuhlanganise neminyango ethile yamaphoyisa, ukuze kuthathwe izinhlobo ezithile zemisebenzi yazo.

Ngokwesibonelo, i-Government Code yaseCalifornia Ú 815.2 abavikela ukulimala okubangelwa isenzo somsebenzi noma ukungawutholi umsebenzi uma umuntu wangasese enecala. Nokho, umlindi akanwebi ukusho ukuthi uvela emisebenzini eqondiswe noma ukuziphatha okubi ngenhloso ezizweni eziningi. Umbiko wa 2019 ubangelwa yi- American Association for Justice [[ unikeza imininingwane yokwehlukahluka okukhulu kwezimiso zokuvikela izikhali zikahulumeni, hhayi ukuthi abanye bathi bagcina ukuzivikela komthetho.

Ukunamathela Kwezwe Kwamaphoyisa KaHulumeni: Izindlela Ezingokomthetho Nezithiyo

Izisulu zokuziphatha okubi kwamaphoyisa zibhekene nezindawo eziyinkimbinkimbi ezingokomthetho. Kunezindlela ezimbili eziyinhloko: izikhulu zikahulumeni ezifuna ukulawulwa umthetho kahulumeni, futhi amalungelo omphakathi kahulumeni atholakala ngaphansi kuka - 42 U.S.C. 1983. Ngazinye zinemingcele ehlukile ebangelwa ukumelana nesimiso sokuzimela.

IMithetho Kahulumeni Kahulumeni Nemithetho Kahulumeni

Izenzo zikahulumeni zokuzisholo zivame ukuvumela amasu ezenzo zokunganaki njengokuhluleka ukuqeqesha, ukunganaki, noma izingozi zezimoto ezibangelwa amaphoyisa. Kodwa amazwe amaningi awawafaki amatopithi angaphambili afana nokuhlasela, ibhetri, ukuboshwa okungamanga, nokuvinjelwa okunonya kwabahlukumezi bawo. Lokhu kusho ukuthi ngisho noma iphoyisa lesifunda sezenze iphutha ngamabomu, umnyango ungase uvikele isikhulu ngokomuntu siqu ekubekelweni icala (kodwa ngokuvamile sivikelwe yizimiso zokuzivikela ezifanele noma ukuvikela).

Lapho zimangalelwa ngaphansi kwe-TCA kazwelonke, izisulu kumelwe zivumelane nezimfuneko eziqinile zezaziso, imithetho emifushane yokulinganiselwa (ngokuvamile izinyanga eziyisithupha kuya onyakeni owodwa), kanye nezikhonkwane ezibolelweni eziwohlokileyo. Ngokwesibonelo, umthetho we-Florida unecala lomthwalo wamaphakethe ku-R120 000 umuntu ngamunye ne $200,000 (R1 000 000) ngesenzakalo ngasinye. Lezi zithiyo ezingokomthetho zinciphisa kakhulu amathuba okululama.

Ingxenye Ngo - 1983 Namathoyizi Omthetho - sisekelo

Ukuze bagweme ukuvikeleka kukahulumeni, abathathi-mfashini abaningi baphendukela ku-42 U.S.C. ngo1998, okuvumela amasudi ngokumelene nombuso nezikhulu zendawo eziphula amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo. Nokho, bazisho ukuthi abathathwa "abantu" ngaphansi kuka-1963 futhi abavikelekile ekufakeni i-"Izigwebo ze-Prefectionssion". Isithiyo esifanayo seshumi nanye siyasebenza: umnyango wamaphoyisa kahulumeni awunakubekwa ngokuqondile ngaphansi kuka-1998 enkantolo kahulumeni, ngaphandle kokuba imvume kahulumeni.

Kuthiwani ngokufanele isikhulu ngasinye? Ngaphansi kwemfundiso yokuzivikela komzimba okufanelekayo, izikhulu ziyavikeleka ngaphandle kokuba zeqe umthetho omisiwe. Lokhu kuvikela kunqoba ngisho nalapho ukuziphatha okubi kungathi sína. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ngisho noma isikhulu sibekwa icala, umbuso ungasibeka esiphakamisi, kodwa ukukhokha kwesinqumo kukahulumeni akusikhiphi isivikelo somnyango ngokwawo.

Amanye amasu ahlanganisa ukumangalela omasipala bendawo (njengegumbi lamaphoyisa edolobha) ngaphansi kwemfundiso yemfundiso, kodwa esebenza kuphela kohulumeni bendawo, hhayi izinhlangano zikahulumeni. Bheka Monell v. UMnyango Wezinkonzo zeNtlalo (1978]. Ukubemthetho, 01 Izenzo ezimelene nabaphathi noma abenzi bezimiso zinganikeza indlela uma umthetho uvikela ekufuneni izinto ezinjalo.

Imibono Ehlukahlukene Kahulumeni Nomthetho Wecala

Umthetho wecala ubonisa ukuvaleka kwesimiso sokuvikela isimilo. ku-Graham (1985), iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi isuti emelene nesikhulu sikahulumeni esemandleni akhe angokomthetho yisuti emelene nombuso futhi ivinjelwe yiSichibiyelo seshumi Nenye. Ngokungafani, abaphathi be-pastsss emandla abo siqu abavinjelwe, kodwa basebenza. Izinkantolo zihlukene ukuthi amaphoyisa amasosha ombuso aziwafuni yini amasuntra emfuno kahulumeni. Ngokwesibonelo, iNkantolo Ephakeme yaseTexas yabanjwe [Foct:2] e-Texas .[FLT][FLT][FLT] [FLT] [FOLD] [95] [195]

Inguquko ephawulekayo yenzeka eColorado ngemva kobhikisho luka-2020, lapho isishaya-mthetho sikahulumeni sidlula i-SB21-169, eyanciphisa umsebenzi owenziwe ngokungemthetho futhi yandisa icala lokunyathelela amandla ngokweqile ngokuqiniswa komthetho. Kusukela ngo-2023, i-Colorado’s desiver warticer ihlanganisa iziphakamiso zokuhlaselwa, ibhetri, nokuboshwa ngokungeyikho kwabaphathi bokuthula. Ingqungquthela yesizwe yeSizwe Yomthetho ihlela izinguquko ezinjalo.

Izici Ezinquma Ukuthi Uyothembeka

Izici eziningana ezibucayi zithonya ukuthi umnyango wamaphoyisa kahulumeni ungabekwa icala lomphakathi yini:

  • Ilungu lokuzivikela: Izwe selidlulise isenzo setort esihlanganisa ukugcinwa komthetho ngokukhethekile? Ukuncishiswa komthetho kuyisici esisodwa esibaluleke kakhulu.
  • Uhlobo lokuziphatha okubi:[ Ukusho kwe-Negligence (isib. izingozi zemoto) kusengozini kakhulu yokusinda kunamazwi ashiwo ngenhloso okuthatha itort angekho ngaphandle.
  • Uphawu lomsebenzi: Ingabe isikhulu sasisebenza phakathi kwemisebenzi? Ukuziphatha okubi noma izenzo ezisobala ukuthi zingaphandle komsebenzi ngokuvamile ziyahluleka ngaphandle komgodli wezokuvikela.
  • Ukuvumelana ngokwesiprofetho: Ingabe i-paltiff yayiyisaziso sento efunwayo phakathi nesikhathi somthetho? Isifundazwe se-TC njengoba sidinga isaziso phakathi nezinsuku ezingu-90, futhi ukwehluleka kwaphumela ekuxoshweni.
  • Imisebenzi enqabela ukunqamuka: Izinhloli eziningi zombuso ziyakwazi ukumelana nezokuzivikela ze "izenzo zokukhipha iziqu". Izinkantolo zivame ukuhlukanisa izinqumo zamaphoyisa phakathi nezimo ezicindezela kakhulu njengezazisezinqubeni, zivikela umnyango ekunganakini.
  • Isimo sezimiso zokwandisa:[ Uma isifundazwe sifaka izikhulu ezahlulelweni zomuntu siqu ezinecala, ezingasihlisi isivikelo somnyango, kodwa zithinta ikhono elisebenzayo lokuqoqa umonakalo.

Lezizici zichazwe kakhulu. Ummeli wesisulu kumelwe ahlaziye imithetho ekhethekile yesizwe nomthetho wecala ezindaweni ezingaphandle ngaphambi kokuhlela isudi. Ukuhlolwa kuka-2021 uHarvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberies Law Review[ wathola ukuthi ezifundazweni ezingu-28, ukuvikela kombuso kunikeza ibhaxa eliphelele lokufaka isikhala ngokumelene namaphoyisa ombuso, kuyilapho amazwe angu-9 kuphela anabarriters ahlanganisa ukuziphatha okubi. Amanye asele aphethe isisekelo esiphakathi esinemibhoshozo nezindawo ezingekho mthethweni.

Izinselele Zokwenza Amaphoyisa Abe necala Ngokuthembeka Kombango

Umbuso ovikelayo udala izithiyo ezibalulekile zezisulu ezifuna ubulungisa. Ngisho noma umbuso uvala ukuzivikela, kusekhona imingcele esebenzayo. Ukulimala kwezikebhe kulinganisela ukululama, ngisho nokulimala okuyinhlekelele. Ngokwesibonelo, imingcele ye-Georgia yokuwa ezindaweni eziphansi ilimaza uR2,000 000 ngesenzakalo ngasinye (O.C.G.A. . . . . . . 36-92-9-9), kodwa uma ukuvuma kuvela ku-"los" okubangelwa isenzo noma ukukhishwa kwe-apost yabaphathi bomthetho. Uma i-partetlefs, abakhohliwe bangase bangatholi abameli abazimisele ukuthatha izigilathi ngokuvumelana.

Enye inselele ukubonakalisa ukunganaki emacaleni amaphoyisa angafanele. Amazwe ngokuvamile alondoloza ukuvikela "izenzo zokususa," okusho ukuthi izinqumo zezikhulu ezihlukene ngomzuzwana azinakugonywa ngisho noma zibangela ukulimala. Izinkantolo zinikeza inkululeko enkulu ekwahluleleni kwabaphathi, okwenza kube nzima ukunqoba ngaphandle kobufakazi bokuziphatha okunonya noma ukwephulwa kwenqubo ecacile.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukuhlangana kwesimiso sokuvikela umzimba sokuzivikela ezifweni esifanelekayo kudala isihlangu esibili. Izikhulu ezifanelekayo zivikela izikhulu ngazinye ekufuneni amalungelo omphakathi, kuyilapho uhulumeni ozohlolwa ngenkani uvikela umnyango ekufuneni imvume yokuzivikela. Isisulu singase sithole ukuthi zombili izindlela zivalekile ngaphandle kokuba uhulumeni uzivale ngamabomu lezisivikelo.

Brennan Center for Justice iye yafaka isiqinisekiso sokuthi iso sokuzivikela kobuso ikakhulukazi imithwalo emiphakathini efinyele kakhulu yemibala, ebhekana nobudlova bamaphoyisa ngokungenakulinganiswa kodwa elinganiselwe ekutholeni imithombo engokomthetho yokulawula imithetho eyinkimbinkimbi. Abasekeli bezinguquko zemithetho ukuqinisekisa ukubekeka kwecala komphakathi basebenza njengenqubo yokulandisa.

Imizamo Yokuguqula Imikhuba

Ngenxa yokufuna kwabantu abaningi ukuba balandiswe ngamaphoyisa, izifundazwe eziningi ziye zamisa noma zacabangela izinguquko ukuze zinciphise isivikelo sokuzivikela somthetho eminyangweni yamaphoyisa kahulumeni. Lezinguquko ngokuvamile zithatha eyodwa kwezintathu:

  • Iziphakamisi: Amazwe anjenge Colorado, Washington, neNew Mexico aye amisa umthetho oye wabeka imithetho evimbela ngokukhethekile ukuvinjelwa ekufuneni izikhali ezifuna amandla engeziwe, ukuhlasela, nokuboshwa okungamanga yizikhulu zokugcinwa komthetho.
  • Ukuveza umonakalo owenziwe emaphandleni amaphoyisa okuziphatha okubi: SB 2 [2021] California 2 [2021] wasusa isigqoko semali engaphezulu kaR2 000 000 (R260 000) ekulinyazweni kwezikhulu zokuthula ngokuphulwa kwamalungelo omphakathi, ukuvumela ukululama okungenamkhawulo kwezindleko zokwelapha zesikhathi esizayo nobuhlungu.
  • [ imisa ukuqondisa okuzimele kanye nezinqubo zokukhokha: Ezinye izifundazwe ziye zamisa amabhodi okuhlola abantu abangabunjwanga anamandla angaphansi kanye nekhono lokutusa isiyalo, nakuba lemizimba ithukela inegunya lokuthola umonakalo.
  • Abaxhumanisi besimiso sokuvikela ukuzivikela komzimba ngokusemthethweni ekuthobeleni imithetho: Isibonelo esikhulayo sibopha umluleki wesimiso sokuvikela ubukhosi ekuthatheni komnyango wamaphoyisa imisebenzi emihle kakhulu, njengamakhamera omzimba nokuqeqeshwa kokususa umzimba.

Kuhulumeni, iSishaya-mthetho siye sacabangela izindleko zokuvikela uhulumeni ekulweni ngemithetho esemthethweni yesifundazwe ngo1998 sisho ukuthi kuvela ekuziphatheni okubi kwamaphoyisa, kodwa ukuvinjelwa komthetho-mthetho kwenza umthetho onjalo uphumelele ngaphansi kwesibonelo seNkantolo Ephakeme yamanje. [U-Jogeona Floyd Justice ku-Policing Act, ophinde wancishwa ngo-2023, ungenza ukuxhaswa kwemali kukahulumeni ezindaweni ezisekela ukuvinjelwa kwemithetho ethile ngenxa yemithetho engafanele yamaphoyisa, kodwa awukawube umthetho.

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni nazo zifeza indima. Ezinye izinkantolo eziphakeme zesifundazwe ziye zachaza kabusha umthetho-sisekelo wazo ukuze zithole ukuthi ukuvikela kombuso akuwavimbeli ngamabomu amaphoyisa. Doe v. State (2020), iNkantolo ePhakeme yaseWashington ibambelele ekusebenziseni uhulumeni ngokusemthethweni ngaphansi kweTort Ethions Act ifihla iziphakamiso zokuhlasela nokushaya ibhethri ngomthetho, inqabe impikiswano yokuthi izikhulu zezenzo zomthetho ziyimisebenzi ewumthetho. Izinqumo zokwahlulela ezinjalo zingandisa icala ngisho nangesenzo somthetho.

Isiphetho

Isimiso sokuzivikela sombuso siseyisithiyo esikhulu ekubekeni isibopho somphakathi eminyangweni yamaphoyisa kahulumeni. Nakuba iSichibiyelo seshumi nanye nesivikelo somthetho-mthetho wezwe sivikela izinhlangano zikahulumeni ezinkantolo eziningi, ngaphandle kwezenzo zetort, iziphazamiso ezilinganiselwe, nezinguquko ezihlongozwayo. Ikhono lokubeka umnyango wamaphoyisa kahulumeni unomthwalo wemfanelo okhethekile, uhlobo lokuziphatha okubi, kanye nezinyathelo ezithathwa yi-paltiff.

Njengoba ukuqapha umphakathi kukhula futhi izishaya-mthetho zikahulumeni zisabela, ukuthambekela kukunciphisa ukuvikeleka kobukhosi ezimweni zokusebenzisa amaphoyisa amandla nokuziphatha okubi. Nokho, intuthuko ayilingani, futhi amazwe amaningi asanikeza isivikelo esiseduze se-abstute kumatort. Izisulu, ukuqonda i-productal kuyisinyathelo sokuqala ekufuneni ubulungisa. Ama-Atttorney nabasekeli bayaqhubeka belwela izinguquko ezilinganisela isithakazelo sombuso ebukhosini nesidingo esiyisisekelo sokulandisa nokulungisa.

Ukuze kufundwe ngokuqhubekayo ngecala lokuvikela uhulumeni nelobuphoyisa, umbiko weSikole soMthetho [Stanford] weSikole sokulandisa kwamaphoyisa unikeza ukuhlaziywa okunganqamleziyo kwezindaba zomthetho nomthetho-sisekelo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukuncishwa kwesiqondiso sobulungisa [[ esisezingeni lombuso wokuvikela ubukhosi ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo se-Aleth Ehla